The tourism industry in Greece is one of the most basic pillars for the productive machine in the country's economy. However, it becomes "vulnerable" to changes that can be caused by external crises with a direct impact on its activity. The health crisis of the Covid - 19 pandemic, unexpectedly appeared in 2019, disrupting the global market system. Traditional and digital media broadcast on daily basis the current affairs of the pandemic from the appearance of the virus and the imposition of quarantine to the lifting of all the strict measures imposed on the countries, influencing the formation of public opinion in the context of personal protection and social gathering. The impact on national and local economies has been accompanied by an impact on society, the environment and especially in the field of travel decision-making. The behavior of potential or non-visitors was influenced by feelings of anxiety and fear in case of exposure to the virus. The lifting of all measures from May 2020 in Greece also meant the resumption of Greek tourism. The government's plan entitled "Restart Tourism", which set the opening of the country's borders for the summer of 2020 was in the agenda news of media, but also in the citizens’ daily discussions on social media platforms.This dissertation investigates the impact of the pandemic on Greek tourism and user behavior in relation to government decisions to restart the industry. In particular, it studies the evaluations of Greek users for the governmental plan to restart tourism as reproduced by traditional media on Twitter, in order to identify their attitudes and views on the opening of Greek tourism. Through the extraction of the main topics of the period May-September 2020 and the analysis of the user networks from the Twitter platform, the views and the emotional polarity of the Greek users in relation to the new measures of the government are identified.The methodology that was implemented was based on speech analysis through computer programs to extract the most important information through the collection of a huge number of tweets in real time to extract the dominant topics that emerged with the beginning of Greek tourism. Among the topics that emerged, the next step was to identify the feelings of users in the face of the fear of the pandemic and how they experience the return to an "abnormal" daily routine during the summer, the attitude they hold towards the future through the spate of the information for the future of Tourism, as well as the possibility of shaping - modeling a common or specific behavior in front of the government restart measures.
Elite Class ➥8448380779▻ Call Girls In New Friends Colony Delhi NCR
Master Thesis: Coronavirus and Evaluation of the Tourism Restart Plan by Greek users
1. PANTEION UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES
PANTEION UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND COMMUNICATION
DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION, MEDIA AND CULTURE
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
"CULTURAL MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA"
SPECIALIZATION: INFORMATION SOCIETY, MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY
Coronavirus and Evaluation of the Tourism Restart Plan by Greek
users
MASTER THESIS
Polyxeni G. Ntavranoglou
Athens, 2021
3. 3
To my mother, Joanna, a real-life hero
and angel of my heart.
4. 4
Acknowledgments
After almost two years of courses and research, the postgraduate course is officially
completed. A symbolic cycle that had it all, as my return to Panteion University and my
beloved Department of Communication was not far off. A total of 6 years of studies, full of
experiences and acquaintances with projects, professors, fellow students and professionals
from media industry, countless moments that I grew up with and are impossible to forget.
A journey the course of which, however suddenly changed with the arrival of Covid-
19 pandemic. An unprecedented development, a challenge I would say, that turned the world
upside down, but also "interfered" in my own student microcosm, as it was the source of
inspiration for my thesis. My love for travel as well as for "studying" the world, were my own
insights that I drew upon to find the research area of my thesis, with Covid - 19 being the
predominant topic of current media attention. The developments for the future of tourism in
the midst of a pandemic in Greece, also formed the scope of my thesis. A research that studies
users’ behavior in the Twitter environment and is conducted for the first time in relation to the
impact of Covid - 19 on Greek tourism.
As the difficulties were technical in terms of methodology as well as practical ones
due to the quarantine, I would like to thank in particular my supervisor, Yannis Skarpelos,
whose help was invaluable and whose guidance was constant in a period during which the
confinement due to the pandemic was also a period of testing the power of patience and
perseverance. Experienced and trained in the field of Visual Culture, Semiotics and
Computational Analysis of Big Data, is the person who has been talking, since the
undergraduate program, about the "art" of Data Visualization and Network Analysis, an
emerging science in the field of Media through which behaviors and relationships are being
identified among users in social networks,. The Master's program gave me the opportunity to
discover more about this science. I would therefore like to thank Mr. Skarpelos, who played
a crucial role in the course of my research, as he helped me in obtaining the necessary data in
real time and in how to handle all the necessary computer programs which were "foreign" to
me.
On this "journey", I would like to thank two important professors with whom I met
again and whose role was crucial for my undergraduate and postgraduate development, Mrs.
Betty Tsakarestou, the person who passed on all the knowledge and innovations that have to
do with the field of media and Mrs. Dimitra Iordanoglou, through whose courses I learned for
5. 5
the first time the importance of emotional intelligence and received the foundations to
structure my professional identity.
I would also like to thank three very important people, Areti T., Zina S. and Tonia P.,
dear friends that I met in the master courses and we walked together from the beginning to the
end of this cycle. I would also like to give a big thank you to George S., friend and web
developer, who in all the extraordinary technical issues that arose due to my "inexperience"
in computer analysis programs, was and is here to help me in the difficulties that arose in the
midst of a pandemic.
The biggest thank you, I could only give to my one and only mother, Joanna, who
experienced all my anxieties and stood by my side during this challenge to support me. I owe
her the fact that I chose this particular Master's degree, and especially the fact that she is the
person who raised me and taught me what patience, love and hope means no matter how many
difficulties I encounter in life. So, I dedicate this thesis to her, which was completed with a lot
of hard work and passion, just as she has learned to strive to succeed in life.
So, a cycle that has come to an end, and helped me not only to open my wings to new
professional and research horizons, but more importantly, helped me to meet people who will
always remind me why I got here.
6. 6
Contents
Tables ............................................................................................................................ 8
Figures ......................................................................................................................... 10
Abstract........................................................................................................................ 11
Abstract in Greek......................................................................................................... 13
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 15
Chapter 1 - Theoretical Framework............................................................................. 18
1.1. Tourism and Crises........................................................................................ 18
1.2 Tourism and Public Health Crises.................................................................. 19
1.3. Covid - 19 and the Impact on World Tourism .............................................. 22
1.3.1 The phenomenon of "De-globalisation".................................................... 22
1.3.2 Economic Impact. ..................................................................................... 24
1.3.3 Employment and Productivity. ................................................................. 25
1.3.4. Social Experience..................................................................................... 26
1.3.5 Environment.............................................................................................. 27
1.3.6. Travel Behavior........................................................................................ 27
Chapter 2 - Media and Tourism................................................................................... 30
2.1. The role of Media and Internet in the recovery of Tourism Industry............ 30
2.2. Digital Media and Travel Behavior............................................................... 31
Chapter 3 - Covid-19 and Greek Tourism................................................................... 34
3.1. The Covid-19 pandemic in Greece................................................................ 34
3.1.1. Covid-19 and Greek Tourism. ................................................................. 35
3.1.2. Security and Economy. ............................................................................ 35
3.1.3 Tourism Recovery during pandemic......................................................... 43
3.1.4. Restart Tourism Plan................................................................................ 44
3.1.5. The path to a sustainable model and next steps. ...................................... 46
Chapter 4 - Research Design ....................................................................................... 49
4.1. Aim of the Research and Research Questions............................................... 49
4.2. Research methodology .................................................................................. 52
4.2.1. Discourse Analysis through computer programs. .................................... 52
4.3. Data Collection.............................................................................................. 52
4.3.1. Collection of Headlines News.................................................................. 53
4.3.2. Collection of Tweets. ............................................................................... 56
4.3.3. Selection of Days and Timespans. ........................................................... 57
7. 7
4.4. Data Preprocessing and Transformation ....................................................... 58
4.5 Measuring Social Interaction: Users and Influence........................................ 60
4.6. Discourse Analysis........................................................................................ 62
4.6.1 Topic Modelling and Public Sentiment..................................................... 62
4.6.2 Natural Language Processing and Discourse Analysis............................. 62
4.6.3 Topic modelling. ....................................................................................... 63
Chapter 5 - Findings .................................................................................................... 66
5.1. Social User Interaction................................................................................ 66
5.2. May 20th
- June 5th
....................................................................................... 68
5.3. June 2nd
– 19th
.............................................................................................. 79
5.4. June 29th
- July 26th
..................................................................................... 93
5.5. August 1st
– 28th
........................................................................................ 110
5.6. August 7th
- September 15th
....................................................................... 138
Chapter 6 - Conclusions ............................................................................................ 149
6.1. Research limitations.................................................................................. 153
6.2. Future Research Questions........................................................................ 154
Sources - Bibliography.............................................................................................. 156
Sources ............................................................................................................... 156
Greek Bibliography ............................................................................................ 159
Foreign Language Bibliography......................................................................... 159
9. 9
Table 23. Examples of emotional polarity of tweets ...........................................................121
Table 24 . The topics of the tweets for the period August 11th
– 13th
, 2020........................122
Table 25. Examples of emotional polarity of tweets ...........................................................124
Table 26 . The topics of the tweets of the day of August 11th
, 2020 ...................................125
Table 27. Examples of emotional polarity of tweets ...........................................................128
Table 28 . The topics of tweets for the period August 14th
– 22nd
, 2020.............................129
Table 29. Examples of emotional polarity of tweets ...........................................................131
Table 30 . The topics of tweets for the period August 20th
– 28th
, 2020..............................132
Table 31. Examples of emotional polarity of tweets ...........................................................134
Table 32 . The topics of the tweets for the period August 27th
- September 4th
, 2020 ........142
Table 33. Examples of emotional polarity of tweets ...........................................................143
Table 34. The topics of tweets for the period September 6th
– 15th
, 2020...........................144
Table 35. Examples of emotional polarity of tweets ...........................................................146
11. 11
Abstract
The tourism industry in Greece is one of the most basic pillars for the productive machine in
the country's economy. However, it becomes "vulnerable" to changes that can be caused by
external crises with a direct impact on its activity. The health crisis of the Covid - 19 pandemic,
unexpectedly appeared in 2019, disrupting the global market system.
Traditional and digital media broadcast on daily basis the current affairs of the
pandemic from the appearance of the virus and the imposition of quarantine to the lifting of
all the strict measures imposed on the countries, influencing the formation of public opinion
in the context of personal protection and social gathering. The impact on national and local
economies has been accompanied by an impact on society, the environment and especially in
the field of travel decision-making. The behavior of potential or non-visitors was influenced
by feelings of anxiety and fear in case of exposure to the virus.
The lifting of all measures from May 2020 in Greece also meant the resumption of
Greek tourism. The government's plan entitled "Restart Tourism", which set the opening of
the country's borders for the summer of 2020 was in the agenda news of media, but also in the
citizens’ daily discussions on social media platforms. This dissertation investigates the impact
of the pandemic on Greek tourism and user behavior in relation to government decisions to
restart the industry. In particular, it studies the evaluations of Greek users for the governmental
plan to restart tourism as reproduced by traditional media on Twitter, in order to identify their
attitudes and views on the opening of Greek tourism. Through the extraction of the main topics
of the period May - September 2020 and the analysis of the user networks from the Twitter
platform, the views and the emotional polarity of the Greek users in relation to the new
measures of the government are identified.
The methodology that was implemented was based on speech analysis through
computer programs to extract the most important information through the collection of a huge
number of tweets in real time to extract the dominant topics that emerged with the beginning
of Greek tourism. Among the topics that emerged, the next step was to identify the feelings
of users in the face of the fear of the pandemic and how they experience the return to an
"abnormal" daily routine during the summer, the attitude they hold towards the future through
the spate of the information for the future of Tourism, as well as the possibility of shaping -
modeling a common or specific behavior in front of the government restart measures.
13. 13
Abstract in Greek
Η βιομηχανία του τουρισμού στην Ελλάδα, αποτελεί έναν από τους πιο βασικούς πυλώνες
για την παραγωγική μηχανή στην οικονομία της χώρας. Καθίσταται όμως «ευπαθής» σε
αλλαγές που μπορούν να προκληθούν από εξωγενείς κρίσεις με άμεσες επιπτώσεις στη
δραστηριότητά της. Η υγειονομική κρίση της πανδημίας του Covid – 19, έκανε απρόσμενα
την εμφάνισή της εν έτει 2019, διαταράσσοντας το παγκόσμιο σύστημα της αγοράς.
Παραδοσιακά και ψηφιακά μέσα ενημέρωσης μετέδιδαν σε καθημερινή βάση τις
εξελίξεις της πανδημίας, από την εμφάνιση του ιού και την επιβολή καραντίνας, μέχρι και την
άρση όλων των αυστηρών μέτρων που επιβλήθηκαν στις χώρες, επηρεάζοντας τη
διαμόρφωση της κοινής γνώμης στο πλαίσιο της ατομικής προστασίας και κοινωνικής
συνάθροισης. Ο αντίκτυπος στις εθνικές και τοπικές οικονομίες συνοδεύτηκε από επιπτώσεις
στην κοινωνία, το περιβάλλον και ιδιαίτερα στο πεδίο λήψης ταξιδιωτικών αποφάσεων. Η
συμπεριφορά των δυνητικών ή μη επισκεπτών, επηρεάστηκε από συναισθήματα άγχους και
φόβου σε περίπτωση έκθεσή τους στον ιό.
Η άρση όλων των μέτρων από το Μάϊο του 2020 στην Ελλάδα, σήμανε και την
επανεκκίνηση του ελληνικού τουρισμού. Το σχέδιο της κυβέρνησης με τίτλο «Restart
Tourism», με το οποίο ορίστηκε το άνοιγμα των συνόρων της χώρας για το καλοκαίρι του
2020, βρέθηκε στο πλαίσιο της επικαιρότητας των μέσων ενημέρωσης, αλλά και των πολιτών
στις πλατφόρμες κοινωνικής δικτύωσης. Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία, διερευνά την
επίδραση της πανδημίας στον ελληνικό τουρισμό και στην συμπεριφορά των χρηστών σε
σχέση με τις αποφάσεις της κυβέρνησης για την επανεκκίνησης της βιομηχανίας. Ειδικότερα,
μελετά τις αξιολογήσεις των Ελλήνων χρηστών για το κυβερνητικό σχέδιο επανεκκίνησης
του τουρισμού όπως αναπαρήχθη από τα μέσα ενημέρωσης στο ψηφιακό μέσο του Twitter,
με σκοπό να εντοπίσει τις συμπεριφορές και απόψεις τους για το άνοιγμα του ελληνικού
τουρισμού. Μέσα από την εξαγωγή των κυρίαρχων θεματικών της περιόδου Μάϊος –
Σεπτέμβριος 2020 και την ανάλυση των δικτύων χρηστών από την πλατφόρμα του Twitter,
εντοπίζονται οι απόψεις και η συναισθηματική πολικότητα των Ελλήνων χρηστών σε σχέση
με τα νέα μέτρα της κυβέρνησης.
Η μεθοδολογία που ακολουθήθηκε βασίστηκε στην ανάλυση λόγου μέσω
υπολογιστικών προγραμμάτων για την εξαγωγή των πιο σημαντικών πληροφοριών μέσα από
τη συλλογή ενός τεράστιου αριθμού tweets σε πραγματικό χρόνο, με σκοπό την εξαγωγή των
κυρίαρχων θεματικών που προέκυψαν με την έναρξη του ελληνικού τουρισμού. Μέσα από
τις θεματικές που προέκυψαν επόμενο βήμα ήταν να εντοπιστούν τα συναισθήματα των
14. 14
χρηστών μπροστά στο φόβο της πανδημίας και τον τρόπο που βιώνουν την επιστροφή σε μια
«μη κανονική» καθημερινότητα την περίοδο του καλοκαιριού καθώς και τη στάση που
κρατούν απέναντι στο μέλλον μπροστά στον καταιγισμό της πληροφορίας για τις εξελίξεις
του Τουρισμού, καθώς και την πιθανότητα διαμόρφωσης - μοντελοποίησης μιας κοινής ή
συγκεκριμένης συμπεριφοράς μπροστά στα κυβερνητικά μέτρα επανεκκίνησης.
Λέξεις-κλειδιά: Κορωνοϊός, Τουρισμός, Twitter, Ελλάδα, δίκτυα χρηστών, θεματική
μοντελοποίηση, συναισθηματική πολικότητα
15. 15
Introduction
2020 has been described as the most disruptive year of the 21st century. At a time
when technology is evolving at an unimaginable pace, with goods and services having
geometrically upgraded human living standards, the unexpected emergence of the Covid-19
pandemic came as a universal and urgent reminder that nothing in life can be taken for granted.
An "enigma" virus, first identified in November 2019 in the city of Wuhan, China, it was the
biggest health risk to hit the planet, a threat where its transmission rates shook health systems,
commerce, every kind of professional activity and the global economy more broadly. At the
same time a reference is made to the period of 'de-globalization' we are living in
(Niewiadomski, 2020) with the closure of borders and the cessation of global transport and
travel. Global travel in the context of globalization was framed by an 'opening up of space'
where the ease of travel e.g., air travel, and the intense pace of life changed with the closure
of borders.
But the impact wasn’t only economic but also social. Faced with the need to protect
public health, the pandemic deprived human being of his greatest innate need, his sense of
belonging to a group, of coexisting with other people, of establishing and maintaining social
relations. The compelling shift to social isolation under the new conditions of distancing due
to the rapid transmission of the virus, led to an increased need for intense connection,
interaction, and activism through social networking platforms, where users exchanged ideas,
opinions and experiences about the new reality.
Gössling, Scott and Hall (2020) state that "intense media coverage can lead people to
overreact to mild pandemics", confirming that behaviors are influenced by the communication
of information from news and social media. However, as Coronavirus was not a mild
pandemic, the threat of death prevailed to a much greater degree. People's activity on social
media in the period before and after the quarantine led to an increased sharing of information,
communication, and the creation of communities with shared interests and opinions, in
relation to the lifting of the quarantine the uncertainty of the future of the market, labor and
the economy combined with the risk of virus transmission and the government's plans for a
return to normality.
This thesis uses the social networking platform of Twitter as a user activity research
environment to study behaviors and social relationships among users regarding the new reality
imposed by the Coronavirus’ pandemic. The field of study is Tourism, for which the
evaluations of Greek users regarding the new governmental measures to restart the industry
16. 16
are investigated, shortly after the exit from the three - month quarantine imposed on the
country and the lifting of all social distancing measures to open the market and Greek
economy.
The choice of this field has to do with the fact that Tourism in Greece, due to its
geographical location, is the sector with the greatest economic activity, but due to the
unexpected arrival of Covid-19, it was threatened and affected more than all other sectors of
the national economy. The crisis in the tourism industry was one of the top newsworthy issues
to report on, even before the quarantine was lifted in May 2020. After the completion of all
necessary government measures to protect the state from the pandemic, the Prime Minister of
Greece, Kyriakos Mitsotakis, announced in his speech on May 20th
, 2020, along with the
lifting of the strict measures against Covid-19, the new measures to support the economy,
employment, and the plan to restart tourism entitled "Restart Tourism". Issues related to the
gradual opening of Tourism, the strengthening of health structures and the operational
management of outbreaks will be studied in the light of the Greek citizen, investigating the
way in which he evaluates the institutional discourse and the new governmental conditions
for the formation and development of the tourist season through Twitter.
In this context, the top topics which developed and discussed among communities on
the Twitter platform are explored, as well as the emotional polarity that characterizes users.
Moving forward in a project to re-launch the country and within a regime where the meaning
of life has been reconfigured after the lockdown, the aim is to study how institutional discourse
influences users' evaluations on Twitter in a context where concepts such as 'uncertainty'
'unknown', 'new', 'adaptation', 'caution', 'responsibility' and 'security' are criteria for shaping
perceptions about their future, following the prevailing sense of fear and dread.
At the time when tourism in Greece is focusing more on the domestic market, the
gradual opening to the foreign market and the return to the globalization regime, this research
aims to study the evaluation of measures by Greeks where the issue of tourist safety plays a
leading role. In the period of social distancing, human beings found alternative options of
excursion, coming closer to nature and the concept of simplicity, and receiving stimuli which
are important for the reception of a new experience and the tendency towards a new behavior.
This change in behavior influences tourism preferences and travel demand which is also due
to factors such as personal economic well-being, disposable income, changes in costs,
perceived health risks, and change in overall consumption capacity because of pandemic
restrictions (Gössling, Scott and Hall, 2020). The purpose, therefore, and based on the new
government policy measures as announced on May 20, 2020, is the evaluation of users for the
17. 17
tourism restart plan through research in Twitter by collecting, extracting, analyzing and
visualizing data from Greek users’ tweets.
The first chapter presents the theoretical framework on the crises that have emerged
in the field of tourism with special reference to previous health crises that have affected
tourism activity. As previous studies focus on the economic impact of tourism from health
crises of the last 20 years, an attempt is made to identify the impact they may have on the
environment, labor and society. Special reference is made to the impact on travel behavior, as
travel has been one of the main sources of rapid spread of the virus, which has intensified
negative feelings of fear, anxiety and worry before making all necessary travel decisions.
The second chapter, which is essentially a continuation of the study of travel
behavior, provides a more specific account of the role that traditional and contemporary media
play in communicating the health crisis, and how they influence travel decisions at all stages
of the development of a public health crisis.
In the third chapter, the chronology of the pandemic in Greece, the immediate
consequences and the governmental measures taken to deal with the health crisis and the
restart of tourism activity in the country are described. In particular, the tourism restart plan
entitled "Restart Tourism" is presented, and after the measures implemented, the next
objectives of the government are being referred in relation to the response to the Coronavirus
and the country's efforts to develop tourism trying to move towards a sustainable model.
Chapter four presents the methodology and the research questions of the study,
followed by a description of how the data was collected from the Twitter platform and the
process followed in terms of extraction, processing and visualization. At the same time, in
order to understand the analysis of social data and user networks in social media, the necessary
literature reference is given on how they are connected, active and the measurement of the
interaction among them is made. Through the visualization of social data, the results of the
user networks are given and the top users for each period of time investigated, are presented.
In chapter five, through the discourse analysis of the tweets, the top topics for the
period May - September 2020 are identified, while the emotional polarity of users, in relation
to the topics related to the reset measures, is also presented. Finally, conclusions are presented
regarding users' opinions and emotions regarding the tourism reset measures in Greece in
relation to the networks formed between them, and the paper concludes with the limitations
of the research and the formulation of the next research questions that could motivate future
research.
18. 18
Chapter 1 - Theoretical Framework
1.1. Tourism and Crises
Tourism has been internationally recognized as a multicultural industry (Mistilis & Sheldon,
2006) operating in a multidimensional environment (Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020) of a
technological, economic, cultural, ecological, or political-social nature. Among a multitude of
interactions, it is identified as an open networking system (Pforr & Hosie, 2008; Uğur &
Akbıyık, 2020), but it becomes vulnerable to changes due to exogenous crises or disasters that
disrupt and negatively affect it (Tsao & Ni, 2016). Ritchie and Jiang (2019), state that any
event that can threaten the smooth operation of tourism businesses or damage the reputation
of a tourist destination is classified as a "tourism crisis". It negatively affects potential visitors'
perception of a destination in terms of safety, attraction, and comfort, leading to a crisis in the
local tourism economy as well as a decrease in arrivals and tourist mobility.
Nanni and Ulqinaku (2020), state that the impact of a crisis on tourism can be complex
in nature, magnitude, and degree, while Zeng, Carter, and De Lacy (2005) argue that the
different nature of crises implies different impacts on tourism with corresponding rates of
recovery. The nature of a crisis in tourism differs depending on the culture in which it occurs,
the organizational culture of companies and the political structure of the environment
surrounding the industry (Mistilis & Sheldon, 2006). Depending on its geographical scope, it
can be a local, regional, national, or international crisis, and in terms of its nature it can be
economic socio-cultural, ecological, health or technological in nature (Uğur & Akbıyık,
2020:3). It can be endogenous if it has arisen within the tourism industry or exogenous if it
has arisen from conditions in the external environment (Mistilis & Sheldon, 2006; Uğur &
Akbıyık, 2020:3), and it can be accidental or occur by design (Ritchie & Jiang, 2019).
Over the last 20 years, global tourism has been exposed to a series of crises (Gössling,
Scott & Hall, 2020; Mistilis & Sheldon, 2006; Pforr & Hosie, 2008; Polyzos, Samitas &
Spyridou, 2020), the nature of which is related to political instability (unrest, coups, ethnic
rivalries), economic conditions (financial events, stock market crises) such as the Global
Financial Crisis in 2009, natural disasters (earthquakes, tornadoes, floods, tsunamis, fires,
volcanic eruptions, avalanches, hurricanes) such as the Tsunami in Southeast Asia in 2004
that devastated 15 countries and the Katrina cyclone in 2005 in the Southeastern United
States.USA, particularly in New Orleans, terrorist threats and attacks such as the September
11, 2001 attack, criminal acts, wars and epidemics.
19. 19
1.2 Tourism and Public Health Crises
Most of the research (Ritchie & Jiang, 2019) has focused on a variety of crises and changes
that have affected the tourism industry, but few have explored public health-related crises.
Studies on health-related crises, particularly epidemics, have found that these crises cause a
negative impact on the tourism industry (Gössling et al., 2020; Hall et al, 2020; Ritchie &
Jiang, 2019) at the national or international level, but focusing only on the economic impact
(Gössling et al., 2020), or the impact in specific countries, rather than on the general
relationship between pandemics, tourism and their long-term effects on the industry (Hall,
Scott, & Gössling, 2020).
The globalization of tourism and travel (Niewiadomski, 2020) are conditions that
facilitate the spread of an epidemic, which exponentially increases the magnitude of a health
crisis (Hall, et al., 2020; Niewiadomski, 2020; Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020) and brings about strong
economic impacts (Gössling et al., 2020; Hall et al., 2020; Ritchie & Jiang, 2019) on the
tourism industry.
Most notably, in the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome1
(SARS) in
2003, the virus emerged in Hong Kong and spread very quickly to tourists from China, Taiwan
and Canada (Gössling et al., 2020; Polyzos et al., 2020). Travelers on their return to their
countries transmitted the virus, resulting in 8000 people worldwide being infected in more
than 30 countries (Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020).
The United Nations World Tourism Organization2
(UNWTO, 2003), decided on travel
restrictions in many parts of Asia and North America to reduce the spread of the virus, as more
than 800 people worldwide have died from the virus. During the SARS epidemic, the
government of China moved to close schools, businesses, heritage, and tourist recreation sites,
and cancel or postpone events (Polyzos et al., 2020).
The impact of the health crisis in Hong Kong occurred primarily, in tourism, travel,
and retail trade due to the sharp decline in visits since the onset of the epidemic, at an economic
cost of $48 billion in China, $100 billion globally (Gössling et al., 2020), and a 1.2% decline
in 8.6 million international arrivals compared to 2002 (Tran, Chen, Tseng, & Liao, 2020).
Specifically, in the first quarter of 2003, the health crisis led to a 2.6% decrease in international
travel of 10% in Asia (Tran et al., 2020) and 50% in the Pacific compared to 2002 (Polyzos et
1
According to the World Health Organization, the symptoms of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome are often a
high fever of more than 38°C, severe body shivering, muscle pain accompanied by severe shortness of breath
and a dry cough. Here: https://www.who.int/health-topics/severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome#tab=tab_1
2
Here: https://www.unwto.org/
20. 20
al., 2020). According to official data from the World Travel & Tourism Council3
(WTTC,
2003), the economic impact of the SARS epidemic caused a decline in tourism GDP in the
affected Asian countries, with China's GDP declining by 25%, Vietnam's by 15%, Hong Kong
and Singapore's by 40%.
The outbreak of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome4
(MERS) epidemic in 2015,
affected South Korea's tourism industry with little negative impact on domestic tourism
demand, but with an apparent decrease of 2.1 million arrivals for foreign tourism and a
corresponding economic loss of $2.6 billion (Tran et al., 2020). The outbreak also had an
impact on total inbound tourist arrivals in China, with significant economic losses in relation
to leisure travel activities, but without affecting the rates of business arrivals and activities
(Shi & Li, 2017).
Swine flu5
(H1N1 Influenza), which broke out in Mexico in 2009 and spread to over
214 countries with nearly 285,000 deaths worldwide, led to a reduction of 1 million tourist
arrivals and a loss of 2.8 billion dollars for the country (Gössling et al., 2020). Globally, during
the crisis, Pacific countries recorded a decrease in tourist arrivals of 3 million visitors and a
corresponding economic impact of $6 billion. Europe recorded a decrease in tourist arrivals
of 26 million and a loss of $61 billion (Škare, Soriano & Porada-Rochoń, 2021).
The Ebola6
virus in 2013, led to at least 11,261 deaths with Guinea, Sierra Leone and
Liberia having the highest rates of cases and casualties with a corresponding economic impact
of $1.6 billion (Ala'a & Albattat, 2019). As the outbreak was first detected in West Africa and
the Democratic Republic of Congo, it intensified xenophobia towards African destinations
(Gössling et al., 2020; Hall, et al., 2020; Tran et al., 2020). The association of the disease with
the countries from which it originated, the outbreaks that occurred and the increased risk of
transmission of the virus created, overall, a negative impact on the image of the African
continent. Maphanga and Henama (2019), in their research on the impact of the virus on
tourism in Africa, also distinguished the reproduction of the xenophobia phenomenon and the
3
Here: https://wttc.org/
4
According to the World Health Organization, the symptoms of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome are fever,
coughing and shortness of breath, diarrhea as well as pneumonia and even respiratory failure. Here:
https://www.who.int/health-topics/middle-east-respiratory-syndrome-coronavirus-mers#tab=tab_1
5
The H1N1 virus, according to the World Health Organization, is characterized by symptoms of headache,
cough, fever, body and joint pain. Although it is a type of seasonal flu, the symptoms and effects on the human
body can be more damaging than a typical seasonal flu. Here:
https://www.who.int/emergencies/situations/influenza-a-(h1n1)-outbreak
6
According to the World Health Organization, the symptoms of the Ebola virus are fever, fatigue, muscle pain,
headache and sore throat, followed by vomiting and diarrhea, with symptoms of reduced kidney and liver
function, even causing internal or external bleeding. Here: https://www.who.int/health-topics/ebola#tab=tab_1
21. 21
association of the virus with the entire African continent. They reported that travelers were
cancelling their trips to countries in West Africa, South Africa and Kenya where there was no
evidence of cases of the virus. The impact on tourism included the closure of hotels, airlines,
and catering facilities, as well as the postponement of sports activities or religious gatherings,
and led to a reduction in revenues and an increase in the unemployment rate.
Although tourism has been found to recover more slowly than other industries, as
tourism demand depends on the impact of risk (Ala'a & Albattat, 2019) and the damage caused
to a destination's image as well as the insecurity people feel. The SARS, MERS, or H1N1
epidemics have affected tourism mobility and international arrivals, but without leading to a
long-term reduction in global tourism growth (Gössling et al., 2020). Complementary, Škare,
Soriano and Porada-Rochoń (2021) argue that epidemic crises affect tourism demand and that
the impact differs depending on the dynamics of the virus in question. Factors such as
infectivity and ease of transmission determine the impact of an epidemic or pandemic on the
recovery of tourism demand. They even focus on the fact that the impact of a health crisis
varies according to the diversity of the domestic tourism industry, the level of economic
development and the resilience of the affected region, and the corresponding level of
technological and institutional development.
A typical example is the 19187
flu pandemic, which was the deadliest in human history
with about 500 million victims. The outbreak of the biggest pandemic of the 20th century
coincided with the end of the First World War and with a time when technological and
institutional means weren’t as developed as they are today, and tourism hadn’t yet assumed
such an important role. The Covid-19 pandemic, although having the same risk potential as
the 1918 pandemic, cannot be compared on any other level, as travel and tourism activity
today is more visible and intense than ever before.
Compared to epidemic crises of the 21st century, such as SARS and H1N1 from which
the tourism market recovered almost immediately after the government measures were lifted,
the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the travel and tourism industry is different, and it is
difficult to put it on the same scale (Škare et al., 2021). The health crisis the pandemic caused
even had a devastating impact, with global industry recovery taking longer than the average
expected period of 10 months. It is noted that the recovery of tourism and the overall market
is directly dependent on countries' institutional effectiveness, coordination between public and
7
The 1918 flu was the deadliest pandemic in human history, causing acute pulmonary oedema and internal
bleeding, and its rapid spread cost the lives of at least 2 million people worldwide. Here: https://www.who.
whoint/news-room/spotlight/influenza-are-we-ready
22. 22
private policy and orientation towards developing a more sustainable and resilient business
model for the period 2020-2021.
1.3. Covid - 19 and the Impact on World Tourism
In January 2020, in Wuhan city, China, a series of pneumonia cases with a new strain of
Coronavirus called "2019 - nCoV"8
, "Covid-19"9
or "Coronavirus" were announced by media
(World Health Organization [WHO], 2020). According to the National Public Health
Organization (EODY, 2020), the impact that the virus can have on the human body is a
respiratory tract infection with mild symptoms such as fever, dry cough and fatigue, with a
proportion of 80% of cases falling into the general category that does not require any hospital
care.
Exposure to the virus, however, poses an immediate risk for those with respiratory
problems, underlying diseases or who belong to an advanced age group. The rapid rate of
transmission through respiratory droplets from a coughing person, and the large number of
cases identified as asymptomatic, have created an out-of-control situation, with global health
security under confirmed threat from the emergence of the virus. As a result, the WHO
(UNWTO, 2020) proceeded to declare Covid-19 virus, first as an emergency health concern
and then to officially report it as a pandemic 10
, with all countries gradually taking emergency
protection measures, imposing quarantine, closing borders, and halting all economic and
social activity.
The Covid-19 outbreak was a global health threat that upended the status quo across
the world. It caused an inevitable economic crisis (Hall, et al., 2020; UNWTO, 2020) leading
to the collapse of industry worldwide, but also a social crisis (Benjamin, et al., 2020; Hall, et
al., 2020) in terms of lifestyle and code of values. The disruption of all activity had
unprecedented effects on countries' economies, with strong industries such as tourism being
shaken and the impact of the pandemic being devastating and multi-level.
1.3.1 The phenomenon of "De-globalization".
According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2020), tourism is the third largest
export sector of the global economy, after fuels and chemicals, accounting for 7% of global
8
Here: https://eody.gov.gr/neos-koronaios-covid-19/
9
Here: https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1
10
Here: https://www.who.int/news/item/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19
23. 23
trade in 2019, and for some countries it accounts for over 20% of GDP and for some
developing countries 80% of exports. The globalization of tourism industry (Niewiadomski,
2020) has enabled people to take leisure trips, experience different cultures, gain new
experiences, and engage in professional and business activities.
But the pandemic event reversed this situation (Niewiadomski, 2020). As it had been
established that international travel was a primary means of easy and rapid transmission of the
virus, isolation of countries became a necessary measure for every country, with the global
community experiencing an unprecedented health, economic and social crisis (UNWTO,
2020). This created a new reality that led the tourism industry to the condition of temporary
"De-globalization" (Niewiadomski, 2020:2), resulting in a severe economic hit (Lew, Cheer,
Haywood, Brouder & Salazar, 2020).
National borders were gradually closed worldwide (Yeh, 2020: 2· UNWTO, 2020) and
the impact of travel restrictions was negative at international, regional, and local levels,
affecting the economy, international and domestic tourism, air transport, cruises, public
transport, and the hospitality sector (Gössling et al., 2020: 2). International airlines have
suspended flight operations (Bhuiyan, Hassan, Darda & Habib, 2020), while many of them
have followed the necessary policy of limiting seats per flight to maintain distances between
passengers, resulting in a reduction in the number of flights (Gössling et al., 2020).
The suspension of international transport and all forms of tourism activity led to a
reduction in tourism demand and international arrivals, as long-distance, rail and sea transport
were hampered by the restrictive measures. Those working in the aviation and transport sector
were suspended or laid off and thousands of jobs were lost resulting in a rapid increase in
unemployment (Yeh, 2020:2· UNWTO, 2020). The ban on all travel and the loss of millions
of dollars to airlines and air transport also created a problem in the immediate availability of
medicines, food, and other products in the affected countries (Bhuiyan et al., 2020). At the
same time, ships on which outbreaks had been detected remained at sea without being able to
anchor, while large cruise ships such as the Diamond Princess11
, remained at anchor without
11
The case of the cruise ship Diamond Princess is one of the most prominent examples in which mass positive
cases of Covid-19 were detected for the first time. More specifically, the cruise ship had departed on 20 January
2020 from Japan with 3700 passengers when it was placed in a state of emergency due to the sudden outbreak
of Covid - 19. The ship was forced to remain at anchor from 3 February for 2 weeks in the port of Yokohama
City, as 355 passengers tested positive for Coronavirus, which led to the death of 7 passengers, and subsequent
financial losses to the company, as well as an emergency repatriation of tourists from the US, Italy and other
European and Asian countries. It is noteworthy that when recording the cases worldwide and by country, the
Diamond Princess cruise ship appeared independently (as a state).
24. 24
being allowed to disembark passengers, who had to be quarantined in their cabins (Gössling
et al., 2020).
The phenomenon of de-globalization has temporarily eliminated the condition of
Ηypertourism (Benjamin, et al., 2020) due to travel restrictions. Hypertourism grew sharply
in recent years with the opening of international borders and the inclusion of new destinations
in the global economy, which were less expensive but boosted alternative forms of tourism,
such as ecotourism, theme tourism and religious tourism, which brought additional revenues
to national economies (Rigou, 2019).
1.3.2 Economic Impact.
The official data of the World Tourism Organization published in May 2020 (UNWTO, 2020),
showed for the first quarter of 2020 a 22% decrease in arrivals and especially for March 2020
a 57% decrease, shortly after the start of the lockdown, the suspension of flights and the border
closure. The loss represents 67 million arrivals and $80 billion compared to the same period
last year.
More specifically, Asia and the Pacific saw a 35% decrease in arrivals, Europe a 19%
decrease, the Americas a 15% decrease, Africa a 12% decrease and the Middle East an 11%
decrease compared to 2019. Travel restrictions were the measure imposed from 20 April
worldwide on all destinations due to the pandemic. According to the WTO report, 45% of
destinations closed all or part of their borders to tourists, 30% suspended all or part of their
international flights, while 18% decided to close borders by banning the entry of passengers
from specific countries of origin.
In new data compiled by the organization two months later for July 2020 (UNWTO,
2020), it is reported that the costs caused by the pandemic by May 2020 were already three
times higher than those of the 2009 Global Financial Crisis. In particular, and according to the
WTO's Global Tourism Barometer12
, the lockdown led to a 98% decrease in international
tourist arrivals in May 2020 compared to 2019. The economic loss from the decline in arrivals
reached $320 billion, triple the loss recorded during the 2009 Global Financial Crisis.
The impact of the pandemic on tourism has had negative effects on economies related
to individual livelihoods (Bhuiyan et al., 2020), public services and small businesses that
account for 80% of global tourism (UNWTO, 2020). In relation to the hospitality sector, the
number of visitors fell by more than 50% in all tourist destinations, and primarily in countries
12
Here: https://www.unwto.org/taxonomy/term/347
25. 25
that took a huge hit, such as Italy and Spain, or countries that took drastic measures to restrict
traffic, such as Greece and Germany (Gössling et al., 2020).
Social distancing measures and quarantine requirements have led to a reduction in the
operation or even closure of hospitality businesses (Hall et al., 2020). The health crisis did not
only affect traditional hospitality businesses, but also tourist accommodation that deal with
Peer-to-Peer (P2P)13
accommodation practices (Farmaki, Miguel, Drotarova, Aleksić, Časni,
& Efthymiadou, 2020) as was the case with the global short-term rental platform Airbnb14
.
P2P practices and the importance of the hospitality experience are now being challenged due
to the new reality brought by the pandemic. Hotels have some advantage due to the lack of
standardization in P2P hospitality practices, as the issue of hygiene and personal safety is a
priority for guests. The pandemic has forced owners to adapt, comply with protective
behaviors by taking preventive measures, making properties available free of charge to health
workers, or advertising accommodation as "Covid-19 shelters", but defying strict quarantine
regulations in the face of financial gain. Research by Farmaki, Miguel, Drotarova, Aleksić,
Časni, and Efthymiadou (2020) on P2P hosts' perceptions of hospitality practices and the
impact of the Covid-19 pandemic in Mediterranean countries found that hosts were directly
and negatively affected by the measures taken by governments to control the spread of the
pandemic. Suspension of flights and border closures led to cancellations of reservations, while
other hosts moved to close accommodation during the pandemic for fear of spreading the
virus. Although Airbnb, due to the dire financial impact, announced its intention to provide
more than $250 million to support its community, hosts said they felt largely wronged by
governments that did not provide financial support, as many of them exempted P2P housing
from business protection measures.
1.3.3 Employment and Productivity.
In terms of employment, tourism supports 1 in 10 jobs for millions of people worldwide
(UNWTO, 2020). The pandemic outbreak threatened 100 million jobs in direct tourism, and
144 million workers in the accommodation and food service industries worldwide.
Inequalities in the work environment, low wages, overtime, and casual work combined with
adverse conditions in the work environment (Benjamin et al., 2020) were already key issues
13
The Peer-to-Peer hospitality model (Farmaki, Miguel, Drotarova, Aleksić, 2020) is based on online networking
platforms, through which people can offer their accommodation for rent for a short period of time. The most
typical model of Peer-to-Peer Hosting, is the digital platform of Airbnb. Here: https://www.airbnb.gr/
14
Here:https://www.airbnb.gr/
26. 26
to be resolved before the pandemic but which the Coronavirus brought back to the forefront
due to increased job losses around the world.
In particular, the dependence of the tourism market and businesses on capital made the
economic crisis caused by the pandemic particularly painful (Benjamin et al., 2020:3), since
the increase in unemployment in the tourism sector was expected, with the World Travel and
Tourism Council (WTTC, 2020) predicting the loss of 50 million jobs worldwide. At the same
time, productivity declined during the pandemic period in the face of the risk of the crisis
spreading (Bhuiyan et al., 2020). Countries that invested to become centers of future tourism
and leisure development with amenities such as restaurants, cafes, museums, gyms, shopping
centers, swimming pools and cultural centers were affected due to the health crisis (Bhuiyan
et al., 2020), which also led to a disruption of funding for biodiversity conservation, affecting
jobs, with reductions in the workforce (UNWTO, 2020). Another impact has to do with the
inability of communities and locals to participate in nature tourism, who before the pandemic
crisis had managed to thrive through their contribution to natural heritage protection and
cultural heritage conservation. Festivals, cultural activities, and gatherings were postponed,
affecting the local market in which locals participated (Bhuiyan et al., 2020).
1.3.4. Social Experience.
The social impacts in the tourism sector relate to the concept of social experience of travelers
(Bhuiyan et al., 2020). To avoid social contact (Niewiadomski, 2020), the ban on gatherings
and the closure of public places affected tourism activities and led to a decrease in social
consumption (Hall, et al., 2020; Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020) in the tourism industry due to the
restriction of visits to cultural venues and events (Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020) and the organization,
meetings and conferences (Hall, et al., 2020).
The imposition of lockdown and social distancing resulted in the suspension of all
social, political, cultural, and sporting activities (festivals, exhibitions, international meetings
and sporting events such as the 2020 Summer Olympics) (Gössling et al., 2020:2; Uğur &
Akbıyık, 2020). Tourism demand decreased overall. Virtual reality tours through innovative
technologies at tourist attractions, parks and museums created a positive impression on people,
intensifying their desire to visit places of interest even after the end of the pandemic (Bhuiyan
et al., 2020; Nanni & Ulqinaku, 2020).
27. 27
1.3.5 Environment.
Leading tourist destinations and metropolises characterized by Ηypertourism were the first to
be economically affected (Benjamin et al., 2020). The highest number of cases occurred in
areas with increased tourist mobility due to the rapid transmission of the pandemic, which led
to the cancellation of short-term rentals and the complete devastation of these destinations.
However, this event also had a positive impact on destinations where environmental
degradation was previously severe (Bhuiyan et al., 2020). A typical example was the city of
Venice (Benjamin et al., 2020), where Ηypertourism and environmental degradation
disappeared due to the travel ban. The imposition of quarantine, led to a suspension of all
activity in the city's canals, resulting in environmental recovery due to the absence of pollution
and waste.
The sudden annihilation of human activity, which to date has caused serious impacts
such as pollution, global warming, ecosystem and biodiversity change, has created a
temporary positive impact on all destinations. Restriction in the exploitation of natural
resources has led to a reduction in pollution activity in natural tourist attractions such as forests
and beaches, acting positively in terms of environment and tourism (Bhuiyan et al., 2020).
Beaches are the most attractive natural attractions and centers of tourism and recreational
activities for many countries, helping to boost local economies and increase living standards.
The need for social distancing has led to a reduction in tourist mobility and activities that
impact on the environment, and at the same time to an increase in beach cleaning activities
during the pandemic period. It is worth noting that the reduction in transport use at tourist
attractions has contributed to a reduction in the rate of noise pollution, which is a major source
of ecosystem and health disturbance (Bhuiyan et al., 2020).
1.3.6. Travel Behavior.
The Covid-19 event also affected travel behavior. The sudden decrease in tourist mobility is
due to travelers’ feeling of fear of possible contamination and the corresponding consequences
of their exposure (Luo & Lam, 2020; Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020:2). The choice of a destination
is associated with the sense of safety or risk that characterizes the destination. When a
destination is considered "unsafe" (Luo & Lam, 2020), then negative perceptions can be
created and cause anxiety tension, and a decrease in the sense of safety and security, resulting
in altered travel intention.
28. 28
It has been found that in health risk situations, potential tourists tend to postpone or
cancel their plans for a destination affected by a pandemic because of the speed with which it
can spread and the damage it can cause to their health. In addition, active tourists proceed to
cancel trips due to the anxiety and insecurity they feel in the face of the idea of the risk they
may be called upon to face (Folinas & Metaxas, 2020). The final choice of a destination is
based on a set of factors regarding health risks, virus, or disease infections and consequently
the cost of possible prevention, in order to feel safe and protected (Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020).
The research results of Ugur & Akbıyık (2020) in relation to feelings of fear, safety
and security, showed that the threat of Covid-19 was the focus of travelers’ decision making
at international and local levels. On the day the pandemic was declared by media, travelers
decided to suspend or cancel their trips, discussing travel insurance issues. The fear caused by
the pandemic affected travelers’ sentiment, increasing anxiety and risk aversion, with negative
effects on their intention to travel.
Gössling, Scott and Hall (2020) state that due to the unprecedented circumstances, the
sense of travel security for the restart of the tourism industry was based on restoring tourists'
confidence. A survey by multinational consultancy Mckinsey & Company (2020), highlighted
a sharp decline in projected expenditure in terms of tourism mobility and hospitality activities.
It did, however, show an increase in optimism among China, Italy, Spain, the UK and the US.
At the start of 2020’s summer season, customer confidence (Gössling et al., 2020) was linked
to the impact of the pandemic on hygiene and safety in the hospitality industry.
A survey conducted by Kapa Research (2020) in April 2020 found a readiness to return
to everyday life, and to activities related to recreation, swimming at sea, holidays and
consumption of food and hospitality services. In terms of travel activity, caution was
expressed about travelling by plane and using public transport, and a preference for travelling
by private car.
The impact of the pandemic has driven international and domestic tourism demand
into uncharted waters. During the period of social detachment, man found alternative options
for excursions, came closer to nature and the concept of simplicity, received stimuli which are
important for the reception of a new experience and the tendency towards a new behavior.
This change in behavior and travel demands are related to travelers’ sense of confidence, but
are also influenced by personal financial well-being, disposable income, work arrangements,
and the overall livelihood of each traveler (Gössling et al., 2020). Travel is essential for
tourism activity and any factor that may lead to its suspension may have a serious impact on
29. 29
the tourism industry (Yeh, 2020: 1). Organizations and businesses involved in tourism try to
be prepared in crisis situations and take appropriate recovery strategies (Yeh, 2020: 2).
Therefore, as the occurrence of a health crisis can have a direct impact on travel
decisions, in this survey users evaluate measures to restart tourism and resume travel activity
in Greece, based on a set of factors as discussed in Chapter 5, among which is the incentive
or not to travel considering the risk of exposure to the virus.
30. 30
Chapter 2 - Media and Tourism
2.1. The role of Media and Internet in the recovery of Tourism Industry
Škare et al. (2020) state that modern factors such as media and the Internet play a key role in
the recovery rates of a tourism crisis. Zeng et al. (2005) state that the effective management
of a crisis depends not only on the institutional mechanisms of the state, but also on the
corresponding media projection of the crisis in a way that maintains stable levels of trust and
security, while reducing fear and misinformation. Having studied the SARS epidemic and the
impact of media on public opinion, they report that media coverage of the crisis and the
projection of images that appeared during the pandemic outbreak directly influenced tourism
behavior, reducing consumer confidence. Although the industry recovered quickly after the
end of the crisis, it turned out that the strong negative media coverage increased levels of
anxiety, doubt and fear among potential tourists.
Chen, Law and Zhang (2021) add that proper information about the health situation
from media plays an important role in the perception of tourists, so as to build their trust and
safety. In their study on the effect that the risk of an epidemic can have on shaping tourist
perception and behavior, they state that it is mainly influenced by factors related to the mode
of spread of the virus, the number of infections and deaths, the duration of the outbreak and
the government measures taken. They also argue that a public health crisis causes a short-term
impact on tourism and the affected area, which influences potential travelers to begin to feel
that risk levels have been reduced after the virus outbreak.
Chen et al., (2021) report that the risk of an epidemic and the impact on travel behavior
depends on the time stage at which the pandemic is occurring.
Mason, Grabowski and Du (2005), in a study on the influence of media on shaping
tourist behavior during the SARS outbreak, report that when the WHO issued prevention and
protection advice that was relayed by media, both potential and actual tourists became aware
and sought new information in media about destinations that were considered safe.
In the context of proper risk communication from media, and in particular for
emergencies that threaten public health, the World Health Organization (WHO, 2020),
proposes a variety of communication possibilities required according to the stages of
preparedness, response and recovery, in order to encourage informed decision-making,
positive behavior change and the maintenance of trust.
31. 31
Risk communication was originally seen as the practice of disseminating information
to the public about health risks and events, such as an outbreak of disease, and taking
appropriate instructions on behavioral changes to mitigate these risks. It now refers to a
practice of sharing information, advice, and opinions in real time between experts and citizens
facing threats to their health, economic or social well-being with the ultimate aim of
facilitating informed decision-making by citizens at risk to protect themselves and their loved
ones.
Pre-tourism crisis response plans involve the formulation of emergency prevention
and accountability plans to prepare vaccinations, conduct regular tests, and implement
inspections for the prevailing health situation (Chen et al., 2021). It is also important to
promote knowledge about risks and prevention to raise awareness among travelers to take
appropriate personal protection measures.
During a crisis affecting tourism, public health service systems and infrastructure, the
scientific community, and experts, as well as communication from media that can help tourists
understand the relevant information, play a key role. The recording of the epidemiological
situation and media information is one of the implementation measures during a tourism crisis,
so that tourists receive information that shapes their behavior to make them feel safe.
After the end of the crisis, travelers’ behavior correlates with recovery efforts and a
return to normality in which the government, the communication of the crisis by media and
the extent to which tourism services respond to the pace of recovery play a role. In an effort
to reduce the negative impact, planning includes cancelling of crisis contingency measures,
liberalizing travel security, enhancing a positive international tourism image, and
transforming the tourism model as more resilient. The communication of all this by media is
becoming a fact that helps to stimulate behavior and restart tourism.
2.2. Digital Media and Travel Behavior
According to a report by the European Parliament's Transport and Tourism Committee
(TRAN), the biggest challenge for tourism industry is to shape the tourism experience in the
new circumstances, where the digitalization of services facilitates tourists' decision-making.
Regou (2019), states that tourism industry is directly affected by technology, internet and new
media. In an environment where networking and participatory nature are gradually eliminating
the role of traditional services, New Media are directly affecting consumers, from choosing a
32. 32
tourist destination to arranging all the processes before and after arriving there. What he
emphasizes is that by using New Media, consumers are taking on a more autonomous and
active role, even determining the future of the economy. In this context, the essence of the
tourism experience is shaped through the value of the collaborative economy in an
environment of digitalization and social networking.
The prevalence of the collaborative economy model and access to information for the
convenience of the traveler has created a new reality. The digitalization of tourism services
has intensified the practice of networking on social media as continuous and dynamic,
introducing a new culture of instant access and evaluation of information that facilitates the
autonomous organization, planning and implementation of an integrated travel experience.
Social networking is taking an increasingly important role in shaping tourism behavior, as the
exchange of opinions and evaluations of tourist destinations in relation to current affairs can
influence the balance of tourist arrivals and the future of the local economy.
In public health issues, social media communication of a health problem has the
potential to change or increase tourists' perception of crises and negatively influence their
attitudes (Yu, Li, Yu, He & Zhou, 2020). Although little research has been conducted on
media coverage of outbreaks and their corresponding social media coverage, it has been found
that the latter exhibit a more nuanced attitude compared to news reports causing a negative
impact through reposted content. Issues of lack of authenticity and rational knowledge
combined with excessive reporting of epidemiological data, as was the case with MERS and
SARS viruses had created negative attitudes in public opinion, resulting in social networks
acting as a means of expressing and shaping public opinion. Critical comments on the
transmission of fake news and exaggerated reports by various media, combined with
misinformation by the users themselves, had created anxiety and disquiet in public opinion.
The communication of a health crisis can affect a person's response to a risk in two
ways. By presenting either the severity and magnitude of the risk, or the likelihood of exposure
to it. These two ways influence the formation of the individual's behavioral response and
perception of the risk as well as the protective measures they will take to avoid the risk of
exposure (Klemm, Hartmann & Das, 2019). Gössling et al, (2020) state that "intense media
coverage may lead people to overreact to mild pandemics", which confirms that behaviors are
influenced by the communication of information from news and social media. But as
Coronavirus is not a mild pandemic, the threat of death dominated to a much greater degree.
Nanni and Ulqinaku (2020) talk about the "terror management theory" stating that in the face
33. 33
of the fear of death, people resort to behaviors that reduce the degree of well-being,
satisfaction with life itself and the meaning it has for them.
With the threat of death being the greatest fear, tourist behavior is changing
immediately. To communicate a health risk, social media, user engagement and community
building are techniques for a constant flow of information, requiring early identification and
management of misinformation or rumors. This is intended to provide a clear understanding
of people's perceptions, concerns, and beliefs, as well as their knowledge and practices.
Greek media played a key role in informing the public about the outbreak of Covid-19
pandemic. Information about the pandemic was provided on daily basis and government
policy addressed the possibility of mass transmission of the virus, reducing mortality rates.
Communicating the risk of the pandemic was an issue that required a special approach from
media to inform people but also to reduce the sense of anxiety and panic that would follow.
34. 34
Chapter 3 - Covid-19 and Greek Tourism
3.1. The Covid-19 pandemic in Greece
The outbreak of pandemic in Greece coincided with an acute economic period, with the
country already in August 2018 at the end of a decade-long economic crisis, with the exit from
the supervision of the International Monetary Fund (Hellenic Republic, 2018) and the
European economic institutions.
The pandemic appeared in the country on February 26, 2020 (OECD, 2020), with the
confirmation of the first cases. After the first warnings about the rate of spread of the virus in
Italy, one of the first measures taken was the suspension of all Halloween celebrations. Due
to the gradual increase in cases, the government decided on 10th
of March to close all
educational establishments and to suspend all cultural and artistic activities. On 13th
of March,
it announced the suspension of catering facilities, sports facilities, cultural and shopping
centers, followed on 16th
of March by the temporary closure of shops and the suspension of
all religious services.
Given the health threat, the government has launched an emergency plan to support
the economy, protect businesses and workers to the tune of €24 billion. As the number of
cases increased, the state took immediate and drastic measures from 23rd
of March to limit the
spread of the virus by announcing a general lockdown, with strict restrictions on traffic and
movement of citizens. The curfew lasted until 4th
of May, the start date for the gradual lifting
of the emergency measures, travel restrictions and reopening of businesses (OECD, 2020).
Other notable dates were 1st
of June, the day of reopening of all tourist businesses, hotels and
campsites, as well as 15th
of June, the day of the opening of international flights and the
opening of borders to tourists from abroad.
The management of health crisis (OECD, 2020) concluded with a reduction in
mortality and the number of cases in the first phase of the pandemic, in a parallel effort by the
government to strengthen the health system infrastructure in the face of the risk of the rapid
spread of the pandemic. After the financial crisis in 2009 that negatively marked the country's
image, the state protection plan implemented was aimed at strengthening political,
institutional and, above all, social confidence. The strict civil protection plan implemented by
the state not only boosted the sense of security in the Greek society, but also formed a positive
image of the country in the global community through the management of the health situation
(Hellenic Republic, 2020).
35. 35
3.1.1. Covid-19 and Greek Tourism.
The virus has appeared in Greece during a period of preparation of tourism industry for the
opening of the summer tourist season. As the country's investment in island tourism is a huge
source of revenue for the Greek economy, the unexpected presence of the virus created a
volatile and uncertain situation in the tourism market. The priority of the Greek government
was to take urgent sanitary measures to protect the island country from the spread of the virus.
If outbreaks were detected, the transmission of the virus would not only be easier but would
also make it impossible to provide intensive care due to the significant lack of health structures
on the islands. Combined with the status of physical geographical isolation from mainland
Greece, the government had no choice but to proceed immediately to reinforce public health
structures.
During the quarantine period, the measures taken on the islands in quarantine
conditions worked to keep them safe and free of outbreaks. At the same time, efforts were
made to strengthen the health tourism infrastructure (Paraschi, 2020), and to proceed with the
digitalization of Greek public administration services so as to facilitate the daily life of the
residents, their travel and transactions (Paraschi, 2020). The condition of isolation during the
quarantine period led the inhabitants of the islands, in their free time, to turn to personal leisure
activities and to enjoy the natural beauty of their place, which had been the subject of intense
tourist activity for the benefit of the Greek economy. The perception of the importance of the
natural wealth and the Greek beauty strengthened the residents for a necessary change of
attitude towards a sustainable model by the operators and services of the tourism market.
3.1.2. Security and Economy.
The country was considered a safe tourist destination before the pandemic outbreak. By taking
the necessary measures, the government succeeded in proving and further strengthening
Greece's positive image, increasing the chances of the tourism demand and mobility that the
country needed to recover immediately.
Jakob Suwalski, analyst at credit rating agency at Scope, said that Greece's economy
is facing the most severe disruption of all eurozone economies, while an ING study found that
Greek economy will be the most vulnerable in the eurozone during the pandemic period, as it
is heavily dependent on the tourism market and travel activity.
According to data from the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC, 2019),
tourism industry in Greece contributes 20.8% to national GDP and 21.7% to total employment
36. 36
with 846,200 jobs. In 2019, tourism demand in the country exceeded all previous records with
34 million arrivals from abroad and receipts of €18.2 billion.
The Bank of Greece's 2020 report (CBE, 2020) showed a dramatic decline in tourism
revenues due to the pandemic, with only 64 million euros for June 2020, compared to 2.56
billion euros for June 2019 (-93%).
Hospitality sector is the most important pillar of Greek tourism development.
According to data from the Hellenic Chamber of Hotels (XEE, 2020), 10,121 hotels with a
capacity of 798,650 beds operated in 2019. According to the Institute of Tourism Research
and Forecasting (ITEP, 2020), only 60% of all hotels in the country managed to reopen after
the lockdown during the summer tourist season, the average hotel occupancy rate was 23%,
while 51% of seasonal hotels closed before September. Only 67% of the hotels that operated
in 2019 established a Health Protocol to reopen in 2020, with 2,328 continuous operation
hotels and 3,699 seasonal operation hotels opening after the lockdown ended.
A report by the Institute of the Association of Greek Tourism Enterprises (INSETE,
2020) on inbound tourism and international air arrivals for the period January - September
2020, reported a 73.4% drop with 5 million international air arrivals compared to the
corresponding period of 2019 which had reached 18.8 million international arrivals.
43. 43
3.1.3 Tourism Recovery during pandemic.
During the quarantine period, the measures implemented by the Ministry of Tourism (Health
Security and Protection Charter, 2020) concerned the exceptional financial support of
exceptionally operating tourist accommodations to protect tourism businesses, visitors and
at the same time 700 thousand workers in the tourism sector.
In preparation for a safe opening of businesses, the Ministry of Tourism also
implemented specific health protocols that tourism businesses had to follow to reopen as part
of the Covid-19 measures. To ensure the proper implementation of the protocols, the Tourist
Board, in cooperation with the Regions and the Chambers, provided free training for
employees of tourist accommodation establishments, with the approval of the Ministry of
Tourism and in cooperation with the EODY. Another action taken by the Ministry of
Tourism concerns the hiring of main or auxiliary tourist accommodation in order to meet
emergency public health needs and to deal with the transmission of the virus during the
summer tourist season.
At the same time, in the field of hospitality during the quarantine period, Airbnb's
business has launched a global initiative of collective effort in which Greece participated, to
help people working in the health sector. Specifically, it developed a protocol for hosts
providing accommodation to help connect and safely accommodate medical staff responding
to the challenges of the pandemic15
.
At the same time, businesses and services of the Greek tourism industry, as well as
the human resources of the Ministry of Tourism, the Greek National Tourism Organization
(GNTO), the institutions of tourism and the Local Authorities, had the opportunity to be
trained remotely with the contribution of the Global Sustainable Tourism Council. The aim
of this effort is for Greece to participate in international best practices and to respond to the
new demands of responsible travelers, who choose the destinations they want based on how
safe, rich in sustainable cultural product and in line with sustainability standards they are.
The Ministry of Tourism has also undertaken some actions to maintain the image and
promotion of Greece as a safe tourist destination. To immediately address the negative
effects on Greek tourism from the dispersion of Covid-19, the Ministry of Tourism, in
cooperation with the Greek National Tourism Organization, local authorities and Marketing
15
Greek Travel Pages (GTP). Airbnb Hosts Provide Housing to Covid-19 Responders (2020, March, 20).
Retrieved from: https://news.gtp.gr/2020/03/30/airbnb-hosts-provide-housing-covid-19-responders/
44. 44
Greece16
, undertook the promotion and enhancement of the country's image and tourism
market.
During the quarantine period, one of the actions they carried out in collaboration with
Google was the #GreecefromHome initiative17
, which aimed to help people from all over
the world stay in touch with Greek culture and civilization, discover and be inspired by the
country's beauty and enhance their digital skills, all while staying at home. To achieve the
above objectives, users could see and experience the beauties of Greece through the EOT's
"Visit Greece" YouTube channel 18
, travel around the country through the "Discover Greece"
digital portal 19
, and educate themselves from home through Google's "Grow Greek Tourism
Online" program.
Aiming to boost domestic tourism, another social policy initiative was the holiday
subsidy program from July to the end of 2020 for 250,000 Greek beneficiaries, entitled
"Tourism for All" with a budget of €30 million.
According to the official data of EODY (2020) and the daily epidemiological
surveillance report of Covid -19 infection, by June 1, 2020, 2918 cases had been recorded
since the beginning of the pandemic, 179 deaths and 12 patients were hospitalized as
intubated. Based on the health data and the controlled conditions of the virus spread, the
Greek government had declared itself ready to restart tourism.
3.1.4. Restart Tourism Plan.
The plan to restart Greek tourism entitled "Restart Tourism" (Ministry of Tourism, 2020)
was announced by the Minister of Tourism, Haris Theocharis, on 20th
of May 2020, shortly
after the official speech (Hellenic Republic, 2020) of Greek Prime Minister, Kyriakos
Mitsotakis. It is an emergency action plan aimed at supporting tourism businesses, protecting
workers and tourists, strengthening health structures in tourist destinations, and working with
society, local authorities, and the global community.
To achieve the above objectives, the reset plan had as 4 pillars (Hellenic Republic,
2020) the selection of countries of origin of tourists based on health criteria, the systematic
random checks to assess the situation, the implementation of strict health protocols, and the
provision of health structures in each destination in case of outbreaks. The resumption of
16
Here: https://www.marketinggreece.com/
17
Here: https://www.greecefromhome.com/
18
Here: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC25dAjaFcMTMiS-Is-wUzvA
19
Here: www.discovergreece.com
45. 45
tourism (Hellenic Republic) started with domestic tourism with milestone dates of 25th
of
May with the reopening of yachting activities and 1st
of June with the reopening of camping
and continuous operation hotels.
The opening of the borders for tourists from abroad was set for 15th
of June with the
reopening of all tourist accommodation and the start of the first phase of all flights to Athens
Airport "Eleftherios Venizelos". The opening of the borders to foreign countries was decided
considering the low epidemiological characteristics, and with additional criteria of road
accessibility, total distance by plane and whether they belong to diaspora communities. The
1st of July was the starting date for the second phase of the opening of flights to all airports
in the country, but excluding countries with negative epidemiological characteristics, while
from 15th
of July the gradual lifting of all other measures began.
To address Covid-19 outbreaks, the government has proceeded to strengthen the
health system in tourist destinations through the possibility of providing covid tests, the
appointment of a doctor in each tourist accommodation for the first evaluation of possible
Covid-19 cases, as well as the appointment of a coordinator in charge of the management of
cases in a second evaluation. Special quarantine areas in island and mainland areas have
been designated for the operational management of the confirmed cases, and the possibility
of transferring cases to health structures has been provided.
To manage the outbreaks in the island country, the government installed 20 new test
analyzers, secured 600 beds for Covid-19 cases and support from the nearest destinations,
ensuring that the duration of the case transport would not exceed 2 hours. The operation of
tourist businesses and transport of tourists was defined through specific and strict hygiene
protocols that tourist accommodation, public transport, car rental companies, ships and air
transport would have to implement.
On economic support measures for businesses, the government has moved to support
seasonal workers by extending employment contracts until July, reducing rents for
businesses by up to 40% until the end of August, and protecting workers with a new labor
support mechanism through the SURE20
(Health Security Charter 2020) program until the
end of September. They also allowed for refundable advances, as well as a reduction in
advance tax on transport, coffee, non-alcoholic beverages, and tourist packages.
20
Program "Co-operation" - SURE
46. 46
To boost domestic tourism, the restart plan also offered special travel programs to
Greeks, such as the "Social Tourism" subsidy program21
, holiday subsidy vouchers through
"Tourism for All"22
, or vouchers for private sector workers. Finally, to boost the sense of
security of tourists, the government proceeded to inform visitors with the possibility of
immediate access to health protocols through the "Visit Greece" application, as well as
through relevant material on websites of tourism operators, implementing a comprehensive
communication campaign in domestic and international media.
One month after the address of 20th
of May, and while the implementation of the
tourism restart plan had begun, the Prime Minister in a press conference (Hellenic Republic,
2020) on June 13, 2020, from the Caldera of Santorini, a reference point for Greek tourism,
declared the official restart of tourism, welcoming the international media and tourists from
all over the world. In his interview, he said the government's main concern is to promote
Greece not only as the most attractive tourist destination in Mediterranean but also as the
safest destination in the world. By taking the necessary precautionary measures, strict
compliance and through the creation of appropriate health structures, the Prime Minister
spoke of the necessity of forming a new tourism model more sustainable and resilient.
3.1.5. The path to a sustainable model and next steps.
Shortly after the end of the summer season on 22nd
of October 2020 (Hellenic Republic,
2020), the Minister of Tourism, Harris Theocharis, noted that the country won the "bet" of
the pandemic, noting that the higher-than-expected booking and arrival rates after the
summer have created a climate of optimism for November as well.
Greece's success was crowned with the award of the Ministry of Tourism and the
Greek National Tourism Organization (GNTO) as the World's Leading Tourism
Organization worldwide at the World Travel Awards (WTA)23
(Hellenic Republic, 2020).
At the end of 2020 and while the second lockdown had begun in the country, in a message
from Tourism Minister Harris Theocharis, he said that Greece, despite the adverse
conditions, had managed "to gain respect and appreciation for the safe opening of tourism in
the midst of the pandemic siege". Emphasizing the upgrading and extroversion of the Greek
tourism industry, the government's goal is to focus more on luxury tourism (glamping),
wellness (thermal springs) and diving tourism, in the context of sustainable development. In
21
http://www.koinonikostourismos.gr/
22
https://www.tourism4all.gov.gr/
23
https://www.worldtravelawards.com/
47. 47
fact, in a teleconference of the International Energy24
Forum on the impact of Covid-19 on
the energy market, international air transport and tourism before the end of the summer, the
Minister announced the pillars for the formation (Hellenic Republic, 2020) of a sustainable
tourism model, based on sustainable development, respect for local communities and the
environment and orientation towards authentic experiences, as demonstrated by the choices
made by tourists during the pandemic period.
The beginning of the recovery according to WTO forecasts (UNWTO, 2020) is
expected from 2021, stressing that domestic demand will recover faster than international
demand. Presentation by the WTO (UNWTO, 2020) on the socio-economic impact of the
pandemic on tourism, highlighting the key role of the tourism industry in promoting
sustainable development goals, particularly in relation to the environment and culture. It
proposes a shift towards building a more people-centered tourism, supported by
governments, prioritizing the health and safety of workers, travelers and host communities,
providing a roadmap for tourism transformation (Gössling et al., 2020).
According to WΤΟ (UNWTO, 2018), Greece is among the Southern Mediterranean
countries that are at the top of the most popular destinations, with global tourist arrivals
increasing steadily until before the pandemic. The pivotal role of tourism in the development
of Greece's economy opened the gates for Greece's participation in 2015, in a new European
Union policy framework with actions of a coordinating nature that prioritized three axes of
positive reinforcement of European tourism: sustainable development in conjunction with
the strengthening of employment, connecting industry with digital innovation and ensuring
fairness in the internal market. In 2017, the United Nations (UN) included tourism as a pillar
for strengthening and achieving the 17 goals of the Global Agenda for Sustainable
Development 2030 (European Commission, 2015). In particular, it recognized the future
contribution of tourism in relation to poverty alleviation and socio-economic development
of countries, environmental protection, improvement of living standards and quality of life
always on the axis of sustainable development, setting a new dynamic that brings peoples
closer together and breaks boundaries through intercultural communication. At the time of
pandemic, the European Union exerted enormous pressure to provide immediate support for
businesses and to protect human resources. As the crisis in tourism and travel activity in
Greece is part of a wider wound in the European tourism industry, the restart was called for
a collective, coordinated, and unanimous response. In May 2020, the European Commission
24
https://www.ief.org/
48. 48
proceeded to draft and publish a proposal entitled "Tourism and Transport in 2020 and
beyond" (European Parliament, 2020) with the aim of a smooth return of tourism to the
European continent. Its main lines were the safe restoration of the free movement of
transport, the opening of internal borders, the connectivity of tourism and hospitality
services, and the restoration of travelers’ confidence (European Commission, 2020).
In a webinar25
organized in November 2020, which was attended by representatives
of the European Parliament and representatives of Greek, European and global tourism
organizations, emphasis was placed on the need for the European institutions to coordinate
unanimously on rules and practices to address the multi-level crisis. Calling on all countries
to participate dynamically in the European programs and resources provided to them to
support tourism, key issues concerning the protection of businesses and the support of
workers were raised. The initiatives mentioned included strong financial support for
medium-sized enterprises and workers from European states, as well as the intensification
of European actions for safe travel to directly support businesses in danger of collapse until
tourism is restarted when the vaccine is available. The need for travel activity and experience
to take place seamlessly through strong coordination in opening borders, the use of
mandatory tests instead of quarantine and the implementation of common health and safety
protocols was also emphasized. All this within a regime where the European Union will
govern appropriately and effectively in matters of tourism and crisis management will be
specifically implemented through the creation of a European mechanism. Finally, reference
was made to the need to complete the transition of tourism to digital and sustainable, together
with a reset regime starting and focusing on domestic tourism, as an opportunity to redesign
a model that considers the environment, society, and the economy.
25
http://elenakountoura.gr/invitation-restarting-travel-tourism-covid-19-pandemic-webinars
