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Qualitative Data Analysis

           Tilahun Nigatu (MPH)
         M&E and Research Manager
   African Medical & Research Foundation

                March 2009




                 tilahunn@gmail.com        +251911486661
The Continuum


      Quantitative                                Qualitative

There is no such thing as                All research ultimately has a
      qualitative data.                       qualitative grounding
 Everything is either 0 or 1                    (D.T Camp bell)
    (Fred Kerlinger)


                       Different approaches to
                          arrive at the same
                               destiny

         http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdeb.php
                                                                     2
Outline of the Presentation
Qualitative research


Qualitative data


Qualitative analysis


Qualitative software


Qualitative reporting




                              3
Qualitative Research




                       4
What is qualitative research?

“Development of concepts which help us to
understand social phenomena in natural (rather
than experimental) settings, giving due
emphasis to the meanings, experiences and views
of the participants.”

                                 Pope & Mays
                            BMJ 1995;311:42-45


                                              5
Dimensions of qualitative methods

Understanding context
• How economic, political, social, cultural, environmental
  and organizational factors influence health

Understanding people
• How people make sense of their experiences of health
  and disease

Understanding interaction
• How the various actors involved in different public
  health activities interact each other

                                                             6
Qual Vs Quan: Basic differences
              Qualitative                  Quantitative


Purpose       To describe a situation,     To measure magnitude-How
              gain insight to particular   widespread is a practice...
              practice...
Format        No pre-determined            Pre-determined response
              response categories          categories, standard measures
Data          In-depth explanatory data    Wide breadth of data from large
              from a small sample          statistically representative sample
Analysis      Draws out patterns from      Tests hypotheses, uses data to
              concepts and insights        support conclusion
Result        Illustrative explanation &   Numerical aggregation in
              individual responses         summaries, responses are
                                           clustered
Sampling      Theoretical                  Statistical
                                                                            7
Qual Vs Quan: Analytic approaches
                      Quantitative        Qualitative


Research question     Fixed/Focused       Broader, contextual, flexible


Expected outcome      Identified in       Usually not predefined,
                      advance             emergent research question

Hierarchy of phases   Linearity           Circular


Confounding factors   Controlled during   Searched in the field
                      design & analysis

Time dimension        Slower              Rapid to slower



                                                                          8
Qual Vs Quan: Data collection method

           Quantitative              Qualitative




Sampling   Random sampling           Open ended and less structured
                                     protocols (Flexible)


Tools      Structured data           Depend on interactive
           collection instruments    interviews


Results    Produce results that      Produce results that give
           generalize, compare and   meaning, experience and views
           summarize


                                                                     9
Models for Combining Qual-Quan
               methods

         Qual-Quan Combining models



 Sequential use model    Concurrent use model




Qual-Quan   Quan-Qual   Quan Qual   Quan   Qual
 model       model        model        model

                                                10
Important concepts in Designing
                qualitative research
Concept           Description

Natural setting   Participants are free from any control & data are collected
                  in their natural environment
Holism            The whole is more than the sum, take magnitude of
                  contextual factors in to account
Human as a        Researcher is involved in every step being responsive,
research          flexible, adaptive and good listener
instrument
Emergent design   Study design emerges as further insights are gained
                  through data collection and analysis

Saturation or     A stage where additional interview or observation is not
redundancy        believed to add new information-enough is enough!


                                                                             11
Common qualitative study designs
Study design           Description


Ethnography            Portrait of people- study of the story and culture of a
                       group usually to develop cultural awareness &
                       sensitivity
Phenomenology          Study of individual’s lived experiences of events-e.g. the
                       experience of AIDS care

Grounded theory        Going beyond adding to the existing body of
                       knowledge-developing a new theory about a
                       phenomenon-theory grounded on data
Participatory action   Individuals & groups researching their own personal
research               beings, socio-cultural settings and experiences

Case study             In-depth investigation of a single or small number of
                       units at a point (over a period) in time. E.g. Evaluation of
                       s service

                                                                                 12
Sampling in Qualitative research


            • To generate a sample which allows understanding the social process
  Aim
              of interest



            • Purposive sampling- selection of the most productive sample to
              answer the research question
Technique
            • Ongoing interpretation of data will indicate who should be
              approached, including identification of missing voices



             • The one that adequately answers the research question-until new
  Size         categories, themes or explanations stop emerging from the data
             • Depend on available time and resources



                                                                                 13
Sampling techniques in qualitative
              research



 Snow ball/chain     Extreme/deviant    Homogeneous 
    sampling          case sampling       sampling




    Maximum           Convenience       Opportunistic 
variation sampling     sampling           sampling

                                                         14
Qualitative Data




                   15
What is qualitative data?

• Data that are not easily reduced to numbers

• Data that are related to concepts, opinions, values and
  behaviours of people in social context

• Transcripts of individual interviews and focus groups,
  field notes from observation of certain activities, copies
  of documents, audio/video recordings...

                           www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdata.php



                                                                      16
Types of Qualitative Data

Structured text, (writings, stories, survey comments,
news articles, books etc)

Unstructured text (transcription, interviews, focus
groups, conversation)

Audio recordings, music

Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals)
Qualitative data collection methods
Methods         Brief explanation



Observation     The researcher gets close enough to study subjects to
                observe (with/without participation) usually to
                understand whether people do what they say they do, and
                to access tacit knowledge of subjects
Interview       This involves asking questions, listening to and recording
                answers from an individual or group on a structured,
                semi-structured or unstructured format in an in-depth
                manner
Focus Group     Focused (guided by a set of questions) and interactive
Discussion      session with a group small enough for everyone to have
                chance to talk and large enough to provide diversity of
                opinions
Other methods   Rapid assessment procedure (RAP), Free listing, Pile sort,
                ranking, life history (biography)
                                                                             18
Questions for qualitative interviews
Types of         Examples
questions
Hypothetical     If you get the chance to be an HIV scientist, do you think
                 you can discover a vaccine for HIV?
Provocative      I have heard people saying most evaluations are
                 subjective-what do you think?
Ideal            In your opinion, what would be the best solution for
                 eliminating gender-based violence?
Interpretative   What do you mean by good?

Leading          Do you think prevention is better than cure?

Loading          Do you watch that culturally degrading TV show on
                 condom use?
Multiple         Tell me your three favourite authors, the book you like
                 best by each author, and why you like those books?
                                                                              19
Focus of Qualitative questions
• Experience: When you told your manager that the
  project has failed, what happened?
• Opinion: What do you think about the role of evaluation
  for program improvement?
• Feelings: When you got to know that the project was a
  success, how did you feel?
• Knowledge: Tell me about the different ways of
  promoting PME?
• Input: When you have lectures on evaluability
  assessment, what does the instructor tell you?



                                                        20
Preparing transcript

Transcribe word by word (verbatim)

Consider non-verbal expressions

Try to do the transcribing yourself

Be patient-Time consuming



                                      21
Preparing Metadata(Log)

Project/research title
Date of data collection
Place of data collection
ID-code of informant(s)
Research team
Method of data collection
Documentation type: Tape recorder, notes
and observations


                                           22
Qualitative Analysis




                       23
What is Qualitative Data Analysis?

Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of
processes and procedures whereby we move from the
qualitative data that have been collected into some form
of explanation, understanding or interpretation of the
people and situations we are investigating.

QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy.
The idea is to examine the meaningful and symbolic
content of qualitative data

             http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/what_is_qda.php


                                                               24
Approaches in analysis

Deductive approach
   – Using your research questions to group the data and then
     look for similarities and differences
   – Used when time and resources are limited
   – Used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a
     larger quantitative study


Inductive approach
   – Used when qualitative research is a major design of the
     inquiry
   – Using emergent framework to group the data and then look
     for relationships

                                                                  25
Points of focus in analyzing text data
• The primary message content
• The evaluative attitude of the speaker toward the
  message
• Whether the content of the message is meant to
  represent individual or group-shared ideas
• The degree to which the speaker is representing
  actual Vs hypothetical experience


                    http://qualitativeresearch.ratcliffs.net/15methods.pdf

                                                                        26
Qualitative Vs Quantitative Data analysis

Qualitative                    Quantitative
• Begins with more general     • Key explanatory and
  open-ended questions,          outcome variables
  moving toward greater          identified in advance
  precision as more            • Contextual/confounding
  information emerges            variables identified and
• Pre-defined variables are      controlled
  not identified in advance    • Data collection and
• Preliminary analysis is an     analysis distinctly
  inherent part of data          separate phases
  collection                   • Analysis use formal
                                 statistical procedures
                                                        27
Tools for helping the Analytical Process

Summaries: Should contain the key points that
emerge from undertaking the specific activity

Self Memos: Allow you to make a record of the
ideas which occur to you about any aspect of
your research, as you think of them

Researcher Diary
Terms used in Qualitative data analysis
Theory: A set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions
that presents a systematic view of events or situations by specifying
relations among variables
Themes: idea categories that emerge from grouping of lower-level
data points
Characteristic: a single item or event in a text, similar to an
individual response to a variable or indicator in a quantitative
research. It is the smallest unit of analysis
Coding: the process of attaching labels to lines of text so that the
researcher can group and compare similar or related pieces of
information
Coding sorts: compilation of similarly coded blocks of text from
different sources in to a single file or report
Indexing: process that generates a word list comprising all the
substantive words and their location within the texts entered in to a
program
                                                                    29
Principles of Qualitative data analysis
1. People differ in their experience and understanding of
   reality (constructivist-many meanings)
2. A social phenomenon can’t be understood outside its
   own context (Context-bound i.e. book is in the pen)
3. Qualitative research can be used to describe
   phenomenon or generate theory grounded on data
4. Understanding human behaviour emerges slowly and
   non-linearly
5. Exceptional cases may yield insights in to a problem or
   new idea for further inquiry



                                                         30
Features of Qualitative data analysis

•   Analysis is circular and non-linear
•   Iterative and progressive
•   Close interaction with the data
•    Data collection and analysis is simultaneous
•   Level of analysis varies
•   Uses inflection i.e. “this was good”
•   Can be sorted in many ways
•   Qualitative data by itself has meaning, i.e. “apple”




                                                           31
Noticing, Collecting and Thinking Model



             Think 
                         Collect 
             about 
                         things
             things



                Notice things



                                          32
The Process of Qualitative data analysis

Step 1: Organize the data

Step 2: Identify framework

Step 3: Sort data in to framework

Step 4: Use the framework for descriptive analysis

Step 5: Second order analysis
                                                 33
Step 1: Organize the data

• Transcribe the data (you can use
  hyperTRANSCRBE software)
• Translate the data (You can use language
  translation software like SYSTRAN)
• Data cleaning
• Label the data
   – Structuring
   – Familiarizing
                               www.researchware.com/ht


                                                    34
Step 2: Identify a Framework

• Read, Read, Read...

• Identify a Framework
  – Explanatory – Guided by the research question
  – Exploratory-Guided by the data


• Framework will structure, label and define data

• Framework=Coding plan

                                                    35
Step 3: Sort data in to Framework

• Code the data

• Modify the Framework

• Data entry if use computer packages

        http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/how_what_to_code.php




                                                               36
Step 4: Use Framework in descriptive
                  analysis
• Descriptive analysis
  – Range of responses in categories
  – Identify recurrent themes




Stop here if exploratory research



                                          37
Step 5: Second order analysis

• Identify recurrent themes
• Notice patterns in the data
• Identify respondent clusters
   – Search for causality
   – Identify related themes
• Build sequence of events
• Search data to answer research questions
• Develop hypothesis and test




                                             38
Types of qualitative analysis

•   Content analysis
•   Narrative analysis
•   Discourse analysis
•   Framework analysis
•   Grounded theory

                   http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/methodologies.php




                                                             39
Content analysis

• Content analysis is the procedure for the
  categorization of verbal or behavioural data for
  the purpose of classification, summarization and
  tabulation

• The content can be analyzed on two levels
   – Descriptive: What is the data?
   – Interpretative: what was meant by the data?

              http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/pop2a.cfm
                                                                          40
Narrative analysis

• Narratives are transcribed experiences

• Every interview/observation has narrative aspect-the
  researcher has to sort-out and reflect up on them,
  enhance them, and present them in a revised shape to
  the reader

• The core activity in narrative analysis is to reformulate
  stories presented by people in different contexts and
  based on their different experiences

                     http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/narrativ.htm
                                                                          41
Discourse analysis

• A method of analyzing a naturally occurring talk
  (spoken interaction) and all types of written texts

• Focus on ordinary people method of producing and
  making sense of everyday social life: How language is
  used in everyday situations?
   – Sometimes people express themselves in a simple and
     straightforward way
   – Sometimes people express themselves vaguely and indirectly
   – Analyst must refer to the context when interpreting the message
     as the same phenomenon can be described in a number of
     different ways depending on context
                     http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/337/aug07_3/a879
                                                                          42
Framework Analysis

• Familiarization: Transcribing & reading the data
• Identifying a thematic framework: Initial coding
  framework which is developed both from a priori issues
  and from emergent issues
• Coding: Using numerical or textual codes to identify
  specific piece of data which correspond to different
  themes
• Charting: Charts created using headings from thematic
  framework (can be thematic or by case)
• Mapping and interpretation: Searching for patterns,
  associations, concepts and explanations in the data
                       http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/320/7227/114
                                                                     43
Grounded Theory
•   Analytic induction
     – Starts with an examination of a single case from a ‘pre-defined’
       population in order to formulate a general statement about a
       population, a concept or a hypothesis
     – Then the analyst examines another case to see whether it fits the
       statement
     – If it does, a further case is selected
     – If it doesn’t fit there are two options
         • Either the statement is changed to fit both cases or the definition of the
           population is changed in such a way that the case is no longer a member of
           the newly defined population
     – Then another case is selected and the process continues
     – In such a way one should be able to arrive at a statement that fits
       all cases of a population-as-defined
     – This method is only for limited set of analytic problems: those
       that can be solved with some general overall statement
                          http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/337/aug07_3/a567
                                                                               44
Strategies for analyzing observations
• Chronology: describe what was observed chronologically
  overtime, to tell the story from the beginning to the end
• Key events: describing critical incidents or major events, not
  necessarily in order of occurrence but in order of importance
• Various settings: describe various places, sites, settings, or
  locations in which events/behaviours of interest happen
• People: describing individuals or groups involved in the
  events
• Process: describing important processes (e.g. Control,
  recruitment, decision-making, socialization, communication)
• Issues: Illuminating key issues – how did participants change



                                                               45
Quality in Qualitative studies
Criteria               Issues          Solution


Credibility            Truth value     Prolonged & persistent observation,
(=internal validity)                   Triangulation, peer-debriefing, member
                                       checks, deviant case analysis
Transferability        Applicability   Thick description, referential adequacy,
(=external validity)                   prevention of premature closure of the
                                       data, Reflexive journal
Dependability          Consistency     Dependability audit
(=reliability)                         Reflexive journal

Conformability         Neutrality      Conformability audit
(=objectivity)                         Reflexive journal



           http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/qualitative_analysis.php     46
Qualitative Software




                       47
Choosing and Using Computer software
• It is possible to conduct qualitative analysis without a
  computer

• Concerns: relying too much on computers shortcuts will
  impede the process by distancing the researcher from
  the text

• Advantages: ease the burden of cutting and pasting by
  hand, and produce more powerful analysis by creation
  and insertion of codes in to text files, indexing,
  construction of hyperlinks, and selective retrieval of text
  segments
                                                             48
Traditional Method of Qualitative analysis

 Traditional Qualitative data analysis is labor-intensive.

 After gathering data researchers
  –   Transcribe the source material with a word processor,
  –   Make multiple photocopies of the text,
  –   Painstakingly read through and assign codes to the material,
  –   Cut the pages up in to coded passages, and then
  –   Manually sort the coded text in order to analyze the patterns
      they find

                              http://gsociology.icaap.org/methods/qual.htm


                                                                        49
Qualitative analysis with softwares
• With qualitative softwares, your workflow will be
  similar, but each step will be made easier by the
  computer’s capability for data storage, automated
  searching and display.
• You can use text, picture, audio and video source files
  directly
• You can assign codes manually (autocode) to any section
  of text, audio or video or part of a picture
• Analysis is easy with the report feature, where you can
  select a subset of cases and codes to work with, choose
  what data to use, and sort your reports automatically

                                     http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk/
                                                                  50
Uses of computer software in Qualitative
               Studies
1)    Transcribing data
2)    Writing/editing the data
3)    Storage of data
4)    Coding data (keywords or tags)
5)    Search and retrieval of data
6)    Data linking of related text
7)    Writing/editing memos about the data
8)    Display of selected reduced data
9)    Graphic mapping
10)   Preparing reports

 http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_CAQDAS/What_the_sw_can_do.php
How to choose software - Key Questions

Type and amount of data
Theoretical approach to analysis
Time to learn Vs time to analyze
Level of analysis (Simple or detailed)
Desired “closeness” to the data
Any desired quantification of results
Individual or working as a team
Peer software support available
Any cost constraints

        (Weitzman and Miles 1995; Lewins and Silver 2005)
Common qualitative softwares

Atlas ti 6.0 (www.atlasti.com )
HyperRESEARCH 2.8 (www.researchware.com )
Max QDA (www.maxqda.com )
The Ethnograph 5.08
QSR N6 (www.qsrinternational.com )
QSR Nvivo (www.qsrinternational.com )
Weft QDA (www.pressure.to/qda )
Open code 3.4 (www8.umu.se)
Basic steps in using Qualitative softwares
1. Install the program (note the requirements)
2. Learn the operation using the help menu
3. Prepare a source document (in text format)
4. Open a project/study unit/Hermeneutic unit
5. Import text, audio, video, picture source files
6. Read the imported text documents
7. Select the segment of the text
8. Insert codes, categories, memos, quotations etc
9. Search, sort, manage categories, manage quotations etc
10. Mapping of concepts, layering, linking etc
11. Producing reports, matrices, exporting data, print
               (Demonstrate with Open code 3.4)
                                                        54
Writing a Qualitative report




                               55
Writing qualitative report


Qualitative research generates rich information-
 thus deciding where to focus and the level of
          sharing is very challenging.


                 http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/michael/qual_writing.htm




                                                                 56
Getting Ready to Write

• Must come close to the point of maturation
  – Be aware of resource constraints and sponsors
    interests

• Organize your materials
  – List of codes
  – Summary device: Tables, thematic structure

• Writing a chronicle (“writing it out of your head”)



                                                        57
Choosing a Style and Focus
• Format
      • Research report
      • Scientific research article
      • Report to donor
      • Field report
      • Evaluation report...
• Focus
   – Academic: conceptual framework/theories,
     methodology and interpretation
   – Practitioners: Concrete suggestions for better practice,
     policy recommendations
   – Lay readers: Problem solving, reform on
     practice/policy
                                                            58
Variations in the Report Format

• Problem-solving approach (problem-based)

• Narrative approach (chronological)

• Policy approach (evidence-based)

• Analytic approach (Theory/conceptual
  framework based)


                                             59
Reporting Qualitative Research

• Typically use quotes from data
   – Descriptive
   – Direct link with data
   – Credibility

• Ways to use quotes
  – Illustrative
  – Range of issues
  – Opposing views


                                      60
Reporting without Quotes

•   List range of issues
•   Rank or sequence issues
•   Describe types of behaviour, strategies, experiences
•   Report proportions (most, many, the majority)
•   Flow diagrams: decision-making, event sequencing
    etc




                                                           61
Interpretation
• Interpretation is the act of identifying and explaining the
  core meaning of the data
• Organizing and connecting emerging themes, sub-themes
  and contradictions to get the bigger picture-what it all
  means
   – Think how best to integrate data from multiple sources
     and methods
• Make generalization-providing answers to questions of
  social and theoretical significance
• Ensuring credible or trustworthy interpretations



                                                            62
Standard Report Format
1.   Introduction
     – Literature review
     – Purpose of the study
     – Brief description of the study
         • Who did the study, where and when
         • Description of relevant cultural and contextual information
2.   Methods: study design, sampling method, data collection method,
     data analysis methods
3.   Results: Presentation, interpretation, relate to relevant conceptual
     framework, discuss methodological difficulties affecting your
     results
4.   Conclusion: Key findings, logical next step, implication of findings
5.   Recommendations: Relate to policy or practice
6.   Acknowledgement
7.   References
                                                                            63
The End


          64

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Qualitative data analysis

  • 1. Qualitative Data Analysis Tilahun Nigatu (MPH) M&E and Research Manager African Medical & Research Foundation March 2009 tilahunn@gmail.com +251911486661
  • 2. The Continuum Quantitative Qualitative There is no such thing as All research ultimately has a qualitative data. qualitative grounding Everything is either 0 or 1 (D.T Camp bell) (Fred Kerlinger) Different approaches to arrive at the same destiny http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdeb.php 2
  • 3. Outline of the Presentation Qualitative research Qualitative data Qualitative analysis Qualitative software Qualitative reporting 3
  • 5. What is qualitative research? “Development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural (rather than experimental) settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences and views of the participants.” Pope & Mays BMJ 1995;311:42-45 5
  • 6. Dimensions of qualitative methods Understanding context • How economic, political, social, cultural, environmental and organizational factors influence health Understanding people • How people make sense of their experiences of health and disease Understanding interaction • How the various actors involved in different public health activities interact each other 6
  • 7. Qual Vs Quan: Basic differences Qualitative Quantitative Purpose To describe a situation, To measure magnitude-How gain insight to particular widespread is a practice... practice... Format No pre-determined Pre-determined response response categories categories, standard measures Data In-depth explanatory data Wide breadth of data from large from a small sample statistically representative sample Analysis Draws out patterns from Tests hypotheses, uses data to concepts and insights support conclusion Result Illustrative explanation & Numerical aggregation in individual responses summaries, responses are clustered Sampling Theoretical Statistical 7
  • 8. Qual Vs Quan: Analytic approaches Quantitative Qualitative Research question Fixed/Focused Broader, contextual, flexible Expected outcome Identified in Usually not predefined, advance emergent research question Hierarchy of phases Linearity Circular Confounding factors Controlled during Searched in the field design & analysis Time dimension Slower Rapid to slower 8
  • 9. Qual Vs Quan: Data collection method Quantitative Qualitative Sampling Random sampling Open ended and less structured protocols (Flexible) Tools Structured data Depend on interactive collection instruments interviews Results Produce results that Produce results that give generalize, compare and meaning, experience and views summarize 9
  • 10. Models for Combining Qual-Quan methods Qual-Quan Combining models Sequential use model Concurrent use model Qual-Quan Quan-Qual Quan Qual Quan Qual model model model model 10
  • 11. Important concepts in Designing qualitative research Concept Description Natural setting Participants are free from any control & data are collected in their natural environment Holism The whole is more than the sum, take magnitude of contextual factors in to account Human as a Researcher is involved in every step being responsive, research flexible, adaptive and good listener instrument Emergent design Study design emerges as further insights are gained through data collection and analysis Saturation or A stage where additional interview or observation is not redundancy believed to add new information-enough is enough! 11
  • 12. Common qualitative study designs Study design Description Ethnography Portrait of people- study of the story and culture of a group usually to develop cultural awareness & sensitivity Phenomenology Study of individual’s lived experiences of events-e.g. the experience of AIDS care Grounded theory Going beyond adding to the existing body of knowledge-developing a new theory about a phenomenon-theory grounded on data Participatory action Individuals & groups researching their own personal research beings, socio-cultural settings and experiences Case study In-depth investigation of a single or small number of units at a point (over a period) in time. E.g. Evaluation of s service 12
  • 13. Sampling in Qualitative research • To generate a sample which allows understanding the social process Aim of interest • Purposive sampling- selection of the most productive sample to answer the research question Technique • Ongoing interpretation of data will indicate who should be approached, including identification of missing voices • The one that adequately answers the research question-until new Size categories, themes or explanations stop emerging from the data • Depend on available time and resources 13
  • 14. Sampling techniques in qualitative research Snow ball/chain  Extreme/deviant  Homogeneous  sampling case sampling sampling Maximum  Convenience  Opportunistic  variation sampling sampling sampling 14
  • 16. What is qualitative data? • Data that are not easily reduced to numbers • Data that are related to concepts, opinions, values and behaviours of people in social context • Transcripts of individual interviews and focus groups, field notes from observation of certain activities, copies of documents, audio/video recordings... www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdata.php 16
  • 17. Types of Qualitative Data Structured text, (writings, stories, survey comments, news articles, books etc) Unstructured text (transcription, interviews, focus groups, conversation) Audio recordings, music Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals)
  • 18. Qualitative data collection methods Methods Brief explanation Observation The researcher gets close enough to study subjects to observe (with/without participation) usually to understand whether people do what they say they do, and to access tacit knowledge of subjects Interview This involves asking questions, listening to and recording answers from an individual or group on a structured, semi-structured or unstructured format in an in-depth manner Focus Group Focused (guided by a set of questions) and interactive Discussion session with a group small enough for everyone to have chance to talk and large enough to provide diversity of opinions Other methods Rapid assessment procedure (RAP), Free listing, Pile sort, ranking, life history (biography) 18
  • 19. Questions for qualitative interviews Types of Examples questions Hypothetical If you get the chance to be an HIV scientist, do you think you can discover a vaccine for HIV? Provocative I have heard people saying most evaluations are subjective-what do you think? Ideal In your opinion, what would be the best solution for eliminating gender-based violence? Interpretative What do you mean by good? Leading Do you think prevention is better than cure? Loading Do you watch that culturally degrading TV show on condom use? Multiple Tell me your three favourite authors, the book you like best by each author, and why you like those books? 19
  • 20. Focus of Qualitative questions • Experience: When you told your manager that the project has failed, what happened? • Opinion: What do you think about the role of evaluation for program improvement? • Feelings: When you got to know that the project was a success, how did you feel? • Knowledge: Tell me about the different ways of promoting PME? • Input: When you have lectures on evaluability assessment, what does the instructor tell you? 20
  • 21. Preparing transcript Transcribe word by word (verbatim) Consider non-verbal expressions Try to do the transcribing yourself Be patient-Time consuming 21
  • 22. Preparing Metadata(Log) Project/research title Date of data collection Place of data collection ID-code of informant(s) Research team Method of data collection Documentation type: Tape recorder, notes and observations 22
  • 24. What is Qualitative Data Analysis? Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating. QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy. The idea is to examine the meaningful and symbolic content of qualitative data http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/what_is_qda.php 24
  • 25. Approaches in analysis Deductive approach – Using your research questions to group the data and then look for similarities and differences – Used when time and resources are limited – Used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a larger quantitative study Inductive approach – Used when qualitative research is a major design of the inquiry – Using emergent framework to group the data and then look for relationships 25
  • 26. Points of focus in analyzing text data • The primary message content • The evaluative attitude of the speaker toward the message • Whether the content of the message is meant to represent individual or group-shared ideas • The degree to which the speaker is representing actual Vs hypothetical experience http://qualitativeresearch.ratcliffs.net/15methods.pdf 26
  • 27. Qualitative Vs Quantitative Data analysis Qualitative Quantitative • Begins with more general • Key explanatory and open-ended questions, outcome variables moving toward greater identified in advance precision as more • Contextual/confounding information emerges variables identified and • Pre-defined variables are controlled not identified in advance • Data collection and • Preliminary analysis is an analysis distinctly inherent part of data separate phases collection • Analysis use formal statistical procedures 27
  • 28. Tools for helping the Analytical Process Summaries: Should contain the key points that emerge from undertaking the specific activity Self Memos: Allow you to make a record of the ideas which occur to you about any aspect of your research, as you think of them Researcher Diary
  • 29. Terms used in Qualitative data analysis Theory: A set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that presents a systematic view of events or situations by specifying relations among variables Themes: idea categories that emerge from grouping of lower-level data points Characteristic: a single item or event in a text, similar to an individual response to a variable or indicator in a quantitative research. It is the smallest unit of analysis Coding: the process of attaching labels to lines of text so that the researcher can group and compare similar or related pieces of information Coding sorts: compilation of similarly coded blocks of text from different sources in to a single file or report Indexing: process that generates a word list comprising all the substantive words and their location within the texts entered in to a program 29
  • 30. Principles of Qualitative data analysis 1. People differ in their experience and understanding of reality (constructivist-many meanings) 2. A social phenomenon can’t be understood outside its own context (Context-bound i.e. book is in the pen) 3. Qualitative research can be used to describe phenomenon or generate theory grounded on data 4. Understanding human behaviour emerges slowly and non-linearly 5. Exceptional cases may yield insights in to a problem or new idea for further inquiry 30
  • 31. Features of Qualitative data analysis • Analysis is circular and non-linear • Iterative and progressive • Close interaction with the data • Data collection and analysis is simultaneous • Level of analysis varies • Uses inflection i.e. “this was good” • Can be sorted in many ways • Qualitative data by itself has meaning, i.e. “apple” 31
  • 32. Noticing, Collecting and Thinking Model Think  Collect  about  things things Notice things 32
  • 33. The Process of Qualitative data analysis Step 1: Organize the data Step 2: Identify framework Step 3: Sort data in to framework Step 4: Use the framework for descriptive analysis Step 5: Second order analysis 33
  • 34. Step 1: Organize the data • Transcribe the data (you can use hyperTRANSCRBE software) • Translate the data (You can use language translation software like SYSTRAN) • Data cleaning • Label the data – Structuring – Familiarizing www.researchware.com/ht 34
  • 35. Step 2: Identify a Framework • Read, Read, Read... • Identify a Framework – Explanatory – Guided by the research question – Exploratory-Guided by the data • Framework will structure, label and define data • Framework=Coding plan 35
  • 36. Step 3: Sort data in to Framework • Code the data • Modify the Framework • Data entry if use computer packages http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/how_what_to_code.php 36
  • 37. Step 4: Use Framework in descriptive analysis • Descriptive analysis – Range of responses in categories – Identify recurrent themes Stop here if exploratory research 37
  • 38. Step 5: Second order analysis • Identify recurrent themes • Notice patterns in the data • Identify respondent clusters – Search for causality – Identify related themes • Build sequence of events • Search data to answer research questions • Develop hypothesis and test 38
  • 39. Types of qualitative analysis • Content analysis • Narrative analysis • Discourse analysis • Framework analysis • Grounded theory http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/methodologies.php 39
  • 40. Content analysis • Content analysis is the procedure for the categorization of verbal or behavioural data for the purpose of classification, summarization and tabulation • The content can be analyzed on two levels – Descriptive: What is the data? – Interpretative: what was meant by the data? http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/pop2a.cfm 40
  • 41. Narrative analysis • Narratives are transcribed experiences • Every interview/observation has narrative aspect-the researcher has to sort-out and reflect up on them, enhance them, and present them in a revised shape to the reader • The core activity in narrative analysis is to reformulate stories presented by people in different contexts and based on their different experiences http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/narrativ.htm 41
  • 42. Discourse analysis • A method of analyzing a naturally occurring talk (spoken interaction) and all types of written texts • Focus on ordinary people method of producing and making sense of everyday social life: How language is used in everyday situations? – Sometimes people express themselves in a simple and straightforward way – Sometimes people express themselves vaguely and indirectly – Analyst must refer to the context when interpreting the message as the same phenomenon can be described in a number of different ways depending on context http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/337/aug07_3/a879 42
  • 43. Framework Analysis • Familiarization: Transcribing & reading the data • Identifying a thematic framework: Initial coding framework which is developed both from a priori issues and from emergent issues • Coding: Using numerical or textual codes to identify specific piece of data which correspond to different themes • Charting: Charts created using headings from thematic framework (can be thematic or by case) • Mapping and interpretation: Searching for patterns, associations, concepts and explanations in the data http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/320/7227/114 43
  • 44. Grounded Theory • Analytic induction – Starts with an examination of a single case from a ‘pre-defined’ population in order to formulate a general statement about a population, a concept or a hypothesis – Then the analyst examines another case to see whether it fits the statement – If it does, a further case is selected – If it doesn’t fit there are two options • Either the statement is changed to fit both cases or the definition of the population is changed in such a way that the case is no longer a member of the newly defined population – Then another case is selected and the process continues – In such a way one should be able to arrive at a statement that fits all cases of a population-as-defined – This method is only for limited set of analytic problems: those that can be solved with some general overall statement http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/337/aug07_3/a567 44
  • 45. Strategies for analyzing observations • Chronology: describe what was observed chronologically overtime, to tell the story from the beginning to the end • Key events: describing critical incidents or major events, not necessarily in order of occurrence but in order of importance • Various settings: describe various places, sites, settings, or locations in which events/behaviours of interest happen • People: describing individuals or groups involved in the events • Process: describing important processes (e.g. Control, recruitment, decision-making, socialization, communication) • Issues: Illuminating key issues – how did participants change 45
  • 46. Quality in Qualitative studies Criteria Issues Solution Credibility Truth value Prolonged & persistent observation, (=internal validity) Triangulation, peer-debriefing, member checks, deviant case analysis Transferability Applicability Thick description, referential adequacy, (=external validity) prevention of premature closure of the data, Reflexive journal Dependability Consistency Dependability audit (=reliability) Reflexive journal Conformability Neutrality Conformability audit (=objectivity) Reflexive journal http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/qualitative_analysis.php 46
  • 48. Choosing and Using Computer software • It is possible to conduct qualitative analysis without a computer • Concerns: relying too much on computers shortcuts will impede the process by distancing the researcher from the text • Advantages: ease the burden of cutting and pasting by hand, and produce more powerful analysis by creation and insertion of codes in to text files, indexing, construction of hyperlinks, and selective retrieval of text segments 48
  • 49. Traditional Method of Qualitative analysis Traditional Qualitative data analysis is labor-intensive. After gathering data researchers – Transcribe the source material with a word processor, – Make multiple photocopies of the text, – Painstakingly read through and assign codes to the material, – Cut the pages up in to coded passages, and then – Manually sort the coded text in order to analyze the patterns they find http://gsociology.icaap.org/methods/qual.htm 49
  • 50. Qualitative analysis with softwares • With qualitative softwares, your workflow will be similar, but each step will be made easier by the computer’s capability for data storage, automated searching and display. • You can use text, picture, audio and video source files directly • You can assign codes manually (autocode) to any section of text, audio or video or part of a picture • Analysis is easy with the report feature, where you can select a subset of cases and codes to work with, choose what data to use, and sort your reports automatically http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk/ 50
  • 51. Uses of computer software in Qualitative Studies 1) Transcribing data 2) Writing/editing the data 3) Storage of data 4) Coding data (keywords or tags) 5) Search and retrieval of data 6) Data linking of related text 7) Writing/editing memos about the data 8) Display of selected reduced data 9) Graphic mapping 10) Preparing reports http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_CAQDAS/What_the_sw_can_do.php
  • 52. How to choose software - Key Questions Type and amount of data Theoretical approach to analysis Time to learn Vs time to analyze Level of analysis (Simple or detailed) Desired “closeness” to the data Any desired quantification of results Individual or working as a team Peer software support available Any cost constraints (Weitzman and Miles 1995; Lewins and Silver 2005)
  • 53. Common qualitative softwares Atlas ti 6.0 (www.atlasti.com ) HyperRESEARCH 2.8 (www.researchware.com ) Max QDA (www.maxqda.com ) The Ethnograph 5.08 QSR N6 (www.qsrinternational.com ) QSR Nvivo (www.qsrinternational.com ) Weft QDA (www.pressure.to/qda ) Open code 3.4 (www8.umu.se)
  • 54. Basic steps in using Qualitative softwares 1. Install the program (note the requirements) 2. Learn the operation using the help menu 3. Prepare a source document (in text format) 4. Open a project/study unit/Hermeneutic unit 5. Import text, audio, video, picture source files 6. Read the imported text documents 7. Select the segment of the text 8. Insert codes, categories, memos, quotations etc 9. Search, sort, manage categories, manage quotations etc 10. Mapping of concepts, layering, linking etc 11. Producing reports, matrices, exporting data, print (Demonstrate with Open code 3.4) 54
  • 56. Writing qualitative report Qualitative research generates rich information- thus deciding where to focus and the level of sharing is very challenging. http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/michael/qual_writing.htm 56
  • 57. Getting Ready to Write • Must come close to the point of maturation – Be aware of resource constraints and sponsors interests • Organize your materials – List of codes – Summary device: Tables, thematic structure • Writing a chronicle (“writing it out of your head”) 57
  • 58. Choosing a Style and Focus • Format • Research report • Scientific research article • Report to donor • Field report • Evaluation report... • Focus – Academic: conceptual framework/theories, methodology and interpretation – Practitioners: Concrete suggestions for better practice, policy recommendations – Lay readers: Problem solving, reform on practice/policy 58
  • 59. Variations in the Report Format • Problem-solving approach (problem-based) • Narrative approach (chronological) • Policy approach (evidence-based) • Analytic approach (Theory/conceptual framework based) 59
  • 60. Reporting Qualitative Research • Typically use quotes from data – Descriptive – Direct link with data – Credibility • Ways to use quotes – Illustrative – Range of issues – Opposing views 60
  • 61. Reporting without Quotes • List range of issues • Rank or sequence issues • Describe types of behaviour, strategies, experiences • Report proportions (most, many, the majority) • Flow diagrams: decision-making, event sequencing etc 61
  • 62. Interpretation • Interpretation is the act of identifying and explaining the core meaning of the data • Organizing and connecting emerging themes, sub-themes and contradictions to get the bigger picture-what it all means – Think how best to integrate data from multiple sources and methods • Make generalization-providing answers to questions of social and theoretical significance • Ensuring credible or trustworthy interpretations 62
  • 63. Standard Report Format 1. Introduction – Literature review – Purpose of the study – Brief description of the study • Who did the study, where and when • Description of relevant cultural and contextual information 2. Methods: study design, sampling method, data collection method, data analysis methods 3. Results: Presentation, interpretation, relate to relevant conceptual framework, discuss methodological difficulties affecting your results 4. Conclusion: Key findings, logical next step, implication of findings 5. Recommendations: Relate to policy or practice 6. Acknowledgement 7. References 63
  • 64. The End 64