Social Case Work

Social Case Work

Compiled by

S.Rengasamy

Celebrating the Dignity & worth of every individual

Acknowledgements
http://christcollegemsw.blogspot.com/
http://Indian Social Study.com
http://www.scribd.com/vinitha_sukumar

S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work

SOCIAL CASEWORK

Mary Richmond

Social casework, representing that part of social work which focused more on the individual, had a
vital non-poverty populations. Social work's prestige was raised through work in war-related activities
such as the Red Cross's Home Service. Caseworkers with the home service, led by Mary Richmond,
applied their skills to problems faced by service men and their families. Physicians, psychiatrists and
psychologists working with emotionally disturbed soldiers saw the social worker as a natural ally.
They began using caseworkers as specialists in social adjustment. Such vital activities were outside
the profession's traditional constituency of the poor and indigent and opened up new opportunities
for social work.

Pearlman

The second major event that marked social casework‟s ascendancy within social work was the
publication of Mary Richmond's Social Diagnosis. For several decades, Ms. Richmond had been
attempting to turn the practical but rough-hewn techniques and skills commonly known as casework
into a more systematic approach. After honing her ideas through workshops, lectures and articles,
Ms. Richmond put her ideas into a book which was the first definitive text on casework.
Much more than just another book, Social Diagnosis, gave to the new field of social work an anchor
in its quest for professionalism. In 1915, noted authority of professional education, Abraham Flexner,
had delivered a paper at the National Conference on Charities and Corrections declaring that social
work was not yet a profession. In his paper, Dr. Flexner was particularly critical of the new field's lack
of a technique which was "communicable through the educational process". Mary Richmond, through
Social Diagnosis, gave social work what Dr. Flexner said it was lacking and propelled casework
from one of a number of approaches used by charity workers into a major form of practice.
Definition

“Social Case work may be defined as the art of doing different things for and with
Objectives of Social Case Work:
different people by cooperating with them to achieve at one and the same time their
own and society’s betterment.” Mary Richmond (1915)

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Social Case Work:
Social Case Work, a primary method of social work, is
concerned with the adjustment and development of individual
towards more satisfying human relations. Better family life,
improved schools, better housing, more hospitals and medical
care facilities, protected economic conditions and better
relations between religious groups help the individual in his
adjustment and development. But his adjustment and
development depend on the use of these resources by him.
Sometimes due to certain factors, internal or external, he fails
to avail existing facilities. In such situations, social
caseworker helps him. Thus, social casework is one to one
relationship, which works in helping the individual for his
adjustment and development.

Every individual reacts differently to his social, economic and
physical environments and as such problems of one individual
are different from those of another. Case work, therefore, aims
at individualized services in the field of social work in order
Case Work to help the client to adjust with the environments.
Making Adjustment Meaningful

Mary Richmond (1917) has defined casework as
“Social Case Work may be defined as the Art of doing different things with
different people, co-operating with them to achieve some of their own & society’s
betterment.”
Gordon Hamilton has defined casework as
“Social case work (which is both a tool and area of work) consists of those processes
which develop personality through adjustment consciously affected, individual by
Definitions

individual between man and his social environment.”
Hollis (1954) has defined casework as
“Social Case work is a method employed by social worker to help individuals find
solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in
satisfactory way by their own efforts.”
Perlman (1957) has defined casework as
“Social Case work is a process used by certain human welfare agencies to help
individuals to cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning.”
Safrad has defined casework as
“Social Case Work is a method employed by a social worker to help individual, find
a solution of their problem of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a
satisfactory way by their own effort.”

Objectives of Social Case Work
 To make good rapport with the common people
 To find-out, understand & solve the internal problems of an Individual
 To strengthen ones ego power
 To prevent problem
 To develop internal resources

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Nature & Characteristics of Case Work
 Relationship arise out of shared & emotionally charged situation
 Relationship contains elements of acceptance, expectation, support & stimulation
 Client & case worker are interdependent
 Case work relationship may have several therapeutic values
 Improvement of condition
 More adjustment within the society
 Development of personality
 Capacity building
 Relationship needs outside help
 Case worker too has relationship reactions and part of and part of ones professional skills
in their management

Components/elements of case work:
 Purpose & concern for the Cline system
A purpose to find-out internal problems & try to solve it and a concern to make good
rapport, feel ones feelings and aims at individualized service

 Expectation at three level
-Expectation of the case worker from the client, how the case worker feels about the
clients ability & what extend client support anybody
-Expectation of the client from the Case worker
-Positive result in the period of interaction

 Accuracy of Empathy and clear communication
- Think positively in others point of view
- What extent you are sympathetic
- Ability to perceive & communicate accurately & feel
- Case worker should be sensitive to express feelings towards client by voice, posture and
good communication

 Non Possessive warmth
Give respect,
acceptance, liking,
caring and concern for
the client in a non-
dominating way.

Going Beyond Prejudice and Fear to  Genuineness and
Understanding acceptance
Case worker mist be
practical in nature. He must be a person of genuineness being real, honest in their
approach and never go beyond her/his limit.

 Authority
Case worker must have a capacity to handle any situation, being resourceful and helpful
Having knowledge, attitude, experience and a position to identify and solve internal
problem of client

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Principles of Case work
Individualization
Purposeful expression of feelings
Control of Emotion
Self determination
Acceptance
Principle of non-judgmental attitude
Principle of Confidentiality
Solving problems by
Drawing inner strength
I. Individualization
Individualization means analyze an individual not from a single aspect but from a various of
aspects. Every Individual is different from others & unique in itself. Problem of every
individual is different from another & depend upon her/his intelligence, so the mode of
helping (Technique) must be according to the Intellectual level, socio-economic situation and
ego strength, ones capacity and resource.
II. Purposeful expression of feelings
Case worker must give the chance to the client to express her/his feelings freely, especially
her/his negative feelings because maximum time feelings are negative in nature. The case
worker listen purposefully clients feelings neither praising nor condemning. Don’t point out
any one as good or bad because of one’s psycho-social
problems.
Case Work
III. Control emotional involvement
Without feeling any one’s emotion with sensitivity, it’s
impossible to find-out her/his problem & get a solution of that
problem.
Emotion comes from 3 ways as
- Sensitivity
-Understanding
-Response
IV. Self determination
Self determination we means let the client to take her/his own decision in own way, give
chance her/him to decide, what is right or wrong for them.
V. Acceptance
A case worker must be accept an individual as a person of “worth & dignity”, not treat as a
problem and always accept ones positive feelings and negative feelings
VI. Non-Judgmental attitude
A case worker mustn’t have the right to judge any one as guilty or innocent.
VII. Principle of Confidentiality
Case work relationship has a principle to take the problems of the client in confidence and
keep it as secret.

Stages
Different stages in case work process are:
Case study
Diagnosis and.
Treatment

Components
The components of social casework are:

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The person
The problem
The place
The process
The case worker and client relationship
The problem solving work.

Social Case History:
The first step in the case work is to collect the social history of the client. This could be done
in various ways. These are:
1. Interview with the client
2. Interview with the relatives, employer, teacher and friends of the client.
3. Visiting the neighborhood and environment in which the client lives.

All these visits will help the worker to know the client in his environment and collect all the
data in respect of the client and his environment i.e. his family, neighborhood, friendship
circle, employer, teacher, etc. as a matter of fact it is not possible to separate the three stages
of case work service i.e. social history, diagnosis and treatment. During the course of
interview, the worker may be able to diagnose and even suggest treatment to the client but
where the problem is very acute; it is necessary to consider the diagnosis in relation to his
own history.

Diagnosis
The Second stage of the casework process is diagnosis. It is used to hold some sort of
conference with the worker from different disciplines to discuss the person and his problems
and a tentative diagnosis is worked out. If it is a medical case, the medical persons are
invited; if it is a case of an educational institution, educationist are invited and if it is a case of
mental illness, psychologist/psychiatrists could also be associated with the diagnosis.
Sometimes other social workers are also invited to this conference.

Treatment
Strictly speaking, everything that has been discussed so far is part of treatment. If the aim of
the caseworker is to enable the client to deal with these difficulties, the treatment has already
gone a long way, if at the first interview the client is able to feel that the worker is a person
worthy of consideration, worth listening to and worth being interested in such treatment. In
such a situation, it would be possible for the caseworker through various interviews to help
the client to understand his difficulties and problems. Unless the client needs therapy, the
previous interviews may result in treatment. There may, however, be a special interview or
conference in relation to the treatment, but these stages, as mentioned earlier, cannot be
isolated.

The interviews in all these process are every important and unless the interviews are
conducted properly, it is not possible to expect results. The case worker has, therefore, not
only to understand the theory of interview but also have sufficient training and experience in
interviewing, if he/she wants to be successful in providing service to the client.

More Explanations on the Principles of Social Casework
1. A worker should believe in social reality.
 Every individual has his own different problems because every personality is unique
 Problems do exit and there is no stigma attached to a problem and or any maladjusted

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person and a social worker does not believe in social isolation for the physically,
mentally, emotionally and socially sick person.
 Every problem can, therefore, be solved provided we create conditions for an individual
who help to make an adjustment with his social environment.
2. The personality of the client is to be respected.
3. Worker should build up purposeful relationship with the client.
4. Worker should always have belief in the ability of the human beings to change and grow.
5. Worker should not involve himself emotionally with the client. There should not be any
over-identification with the client.
6. Worker has to accept and appreciate the individual differences and prejudices of the
client.
7. In the process of helping, it should be observed that the client is as active as the worker,
since the formers’ participation in the treatment is very necessary. The client should be
helped to help himself.
8. Worker has also to look to the interest of the family, community and the agency and as
such he has to help the client to adjust with the family and the community by releasing
the immediate resources available in the community, taking family as a primary
institution. The worker has to consider the client as part of the family, community and
society with mutual responsibility.
9. In order to establish rapport with the client, worker should be sincere and sympathetic
towards him and sensitive to the clients’ feelings and problems.

Interviewing in Casework
By interviewing, we mean a meeting or conference (may be formal or informal) between two
or more persons for specific purpose. It is an art which is used in every situation for better
understanding and better relationships between the interviewer and the interview.
Interviewing is the foundation on which theory and practice of social case work is based
because without interview, the worker cannot get all the possible information about the client
nor can the client gain any confidence in the worker. The purpose of an interview is,
therefore, three-fold
1. To obtain knowledge of the situation.
2. To understand another person.
3. To make the person understand you.
Note: the word client used here means any person who is seeking help or is being offered
specialized service.

Recording in Social Work
1. By maintaining records, a worker can improve his professional skills and techniques, can
learn by his own errors and can thus make his help more effective and systematic.
2. Records not only help a worker to evaluate his own work, but he can also improve upon
his own methods.
3. Records can create interest not only in the worker but also in the client and help in
building worker-client relationship.
4. Records add to the body of knowledge of social work and also make this knowledge
communicable.
5. Records make supervision and teaching easier and effective.
6. Records can be used for social research and planning.
7. Through records a worker can show his agency what work he has done.
8. Records ensure continuity of work, if another replaces one worker.
9. Records are useful for future references.

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10. Records help in providing service on a systematic basis.

Principles of Case Records:
No hard and fast rules can be laid down for preparing records but the following are some of
the most important points, which should be borne in mind:
1. The contents of the records should be kept confidential.
2. Objectivity, accuracy, simplicity and brevity should be the guiding factors in preparing
records.
3. Records should be written in very simple language and a simple style.
4. Reaction of the Client/group should be recorded beginning and /or ending in his/their
own words
5. Abbreviations should be avoided in records
6. Summary is a good device for organizing and analyzing facts.
7. Narrative is a good style for reporting facts.
8. If possible, notes should be not be noted down before the client but after the interview is
over.
9. Client’s emotions- anger, happiness, irritability, etc., should be suitably recorded.
10. Records should be supplemented with letters, etc.

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Process of Social Case Work

Process of Social Case Work
I. Intake (First Interview) Rapport Building
II. Psycho-Social study exploration/Investigation)
III. Psycho - Social diagnosis (Assessment)
IV. Intervention / Treatment (Problem-solving process)
V. Monitoring and Evaluation:
VI. Follow-up and Termination

I. Intake (First Interview) Rapport Building
 Client comes to an agency for professional help through a Case worker.
 Relationship between two persons of unequal positions and power is developed.
Intake (First Interview) Rapport Building

 Accept client as a person in a stressful situation
 Respect the client‟s personality and help him resolve.
The areas for probing are
The areas for probing are

1. The stage of the problem at which the person, through whom, and the reasons because
of which, comes to this agency.
2. The nature of request and its relation to his problem, and the cause of his problem, as
I the client see.
3. Does the request relate directly to his needs/ problems?
4. His adjustment to his social functions in job, family, etc.
5. The state of his physical and mental health.
6. His appearance including dress, etc. in his first meeting.
7. His personal and social resources including material and financial position.
8. Appropriateness and intensity of feelings.
9. Nature of defense mechanisms he frequently uses.
10. Level of motivation, how quickly he wants to get rid of his problems.
11. Nature of family, its status, values, relationship pattern within the family, etc.
12. Reactions to the worker and seeking help from the agency and sex of caseworker who
will be suitable to help the person.

II. Psycho-Social study (Exploration / Investigation):
Psycho-Social study (Exploration / Investigation)
* “Psycho – Social study is the initial assessment of client’s current, relevant past
and possible future modes of adaptation to stressful situations and normal living
situations.”
Perlman has given the following contents of the case work study
1. The nature of the presenting problem
2. The significance of the problem.
3. The cause(s), onset and precipitants of the problem.
II 4. The efforts made to cope with problem-solving.
5. The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case work agency.
6. The actual nature of the agency and its problem solving means in relation to the
client and his problem.
Tools of study
The tools used by the case worker for collecting the relevant information are:
1. Interview guide and schedule. 2. Life chart.
3. Video recording of family interaction. 4. Tape recorded interview.
The Format of Interview Schedule
1. History of the problem.2.Personal history. 3. Family history. 4. Problematic areas.
5. Treatment Plan

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III. Psycho - Social diagnosis (Assessment):
 Perlman (1957) – “Diagnosis helps in determining the focus of treatment, further
collection of facts and deciding the best course of action to solve the problem.”
 “Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive at an exact definition as possible of the social
situation and personality of a given client.”
 “Diagnosis is concerned with understanding both the psychological or personality factors
which bear a causal relation to the client‟s difficulty and the social or environmental
factors which tend to sustain it.”
 “Diagnosis may be viewed as the fluid, constantly changing assessment of the client, their
problems, life situations and important relationships.”
Content of the Social Diagnosis
1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by the client, in their relationship
III to.
2. The nature of the person who bears the problem and who seeks or needs help with the
problem, in relation to.
3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and/ or make
Psycho - Social diagnosis (Assessment)

available.
Process of making diagnosis
 Shifting the relevant from irrelevant data
 Organizing the facts and getting them into relatedness
 Grasping the way in which the factors fit together
 Preparing the meaning as a whole.
Types of diagnosis
1. Clinical 2. Etiological 3. Dynamic
 The person is described by  Tries to  Proper evaluation of the client‟s current
the nature of the illness. delineate the problem as he is experiencing it now.
E.g. schizophrenia, causes and  Role of psychological, biological, social
psychopath, typhoid, etc. development of and environmental factors in the causation
 Used in medical practice. presenting of the problem.
 Use is minimum in case difficulty.  No attempt to dig life history.
work practice. - Importance  History of the  Case worker and client engage in
in medical and psychiatry. person. appropriate corrective action or treatment.
 Limitation  These developments may lead to
doesn‟t look into modifications in the goals for treatment
present.
Data for Diagnosis 1. Interviews 2. Checklist and Inventories 3. Direct Observation
Steps in Diagnosis
1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviors. Both functional and dysfunctional
behaviors in the client‟s environment are surveyed. The client‟s personal strength as well as of
his environment are evaluated.
2. He specifies the target behaviors. Break down complex behaviors into clear and precise
component parts.
3. Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling
the problematic behaviors.
4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any major problem in
treatment and as a way of beginning to establish objectives for treatment.
5. Selecting priorities for treatment is the final step of the diagnosis

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IV. Intervention / Treatment (Problem-solving process):
* Hamilton, “Treatment is the sum total of all activities and service directed

Intervention / Treatment (Problem-solving process)
towards helping an individual with a problem. The focus is relieving of the
immediate problem and, if feasible, modifies any basic difficulties which
precipitated it.”
The objectives of Social case work treatment
1. To prevent social breakdown.
2. To conserve client‟s strength.
3. To restore social functioning.
4. To provide happy experiences to the client.
5. To create opportunities for growth and development.
6. To compensate psychological damage.
7. To increase capacity for self-direction.
8. To increase his social contribution.
IV Methods of Social treatment
1. Administration of concrete and practical services. E.g. money, medical care,
scholarships, legal aid, etc.
2. Indirect treatment (modification of environment, both physical and social).
E.g. camps, group experience activities, training programmes, etc.
3. Direct treatment:
A. Counselling – marriage, occupational, family, school, etc. B. Therapeutic
Interviewing – family and marital therapy. C. Clarification D. Interpretation and Insight
E. Psychological support. F. Resource utilization
G. Environment modification.

V V. Monitoring and Evaluation:
* Monitoring provides crucial feedback to case worker and the client regarding
1. Whether the treatment program is succeeding as desired,
Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation in Case Work

2. Whether established goals have been achieved,
3. Whether modifications in the program are necessary and
4. Whether the client is being helped in real sense.
Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation
 The purpose of Evaluation is to see if the efforts of the case worker are yielding any
result or not, if the techniques used are serving the purpose, and if the goals are
being achieved.
 Evaluation is the process of attaching a value to the social work practice. It is the
method of knowing what the outcomes are.
 It is a continuous process.
 Evaluation of the approach used and result should be taken up with the client so that
the efforts are meaningfully utilized.
 Evaluation will further strengthen the relationship between the caseworker and client
and motivate the client to work towards his goal.
 Casework practices need to be evaluated from time to time. The subject needs to be
tested and researched and most importantly needs ongoing validation. They need to
be proved to the public that they are effective and beneficial to the clients.
 Casework practice should be subjected to critical review. Workers need to be held
accountable for what they do and for their social work competence. Workers need to
win approval for their programs.
 They may sometimes have to be told that their services are overlapping and
ineffective.
 Workers have to enhance their own image and also of the agency to develop public
relations. The clients need to give a feedback on the effectiveness of the services.

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VI. Follow-up and Termination:
VI
 At the end, i.e. termination, the worker should discuss the original as well as
revised goals and objectives, achievements during the helping period, factors
helpful or obstructive in achieving the objectives, and the efforts needed to
maintain the level of achievement and the feelings aroused by disengagement.
 It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt one.
Follow – up & Termination

 It is best to discuss termination and its ramifications (implications) several times
before the final interview.
 The frequency and amount of contacts should be gradually decreased.
 Termination of the helping process brings up in both the case worker and client(s)
many feelings – both positive and negative – which must be verbalized and
discussed.
 Follow-up is done to help client maintain the improvement.
 During follow-up, the client is helped to discuss the problems he faces in
maintaining the improvement.
 Work is done with the people significant for his improved social functioning.
 If required, he is referred to the proper source for needed services and help.
 The follow-up should be planned on a diminishing basis – after two weeks, then a
month, then three months, six months and a year following the termination of the
formal program.

Social Case Work Process
Intake (First Psycho-Social Psycho - Social Treatment M&E Follow-up
Interview) study exploration/ diagnosis (Problem- and Termination
Rapport Building Investigation) (Assessment) solving process)

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Components of Case Work

Person Problem

Place Process

I. Person:
 The person‟s behaviour has this purpose and meaning: to gain satisfactions, to avoid
or dissolve frustration and to maintain his balance-in-movement.
 Whether a person‟s behaviour is or is not effective in promoting his well-being
depends in large part upon the functioning of his personality structure.
 The structure and functioning of personality are the products of inherited and
constitutional equipment in continuous interaction with the physical, psychological and
social environment the person experiences.
 A person at any stage of his life – not only is a product of nature and nurture but is
also and always in process of being in the present and becoming in the future.
 The person‟s „being and becoming‟ behaviour is both shaped and judged by the
PERSON

expectations he and his culture have invested in the social role he carries and the
major
 The person who comes as a client to a social agency is always under stress.
To understand human behavior and individual difference, Grace Mathew has given the
following propositions:
1. An individual‟s behaviour is conditioned by his/her environment and his/her experiences.
Behaviour refers to reacting, feeling, thinking, etc. the conditions and influences
surrounding the person constitutes the environment.
2. For human growth and development it is essential that certain basic needs should be
met. (Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs)
3. Emotional needs are real and they cannot be met or removed through intellectual
reasoning.
4. Behaviour is purposeful and is in response to the individual‟s physical and emotional
needs.
5. Other people‟s behaviour can be understood only in terms of ones own emotional and
intellectual comprehension.
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II. Problem:
 The problems within the purview of social casework are those which vitally affect or are
affected by a person‟s social functioning.
 The multifaceted and dynamic nature of the client‟s problem makes necessary the
selection by caseworker and client some part of it as the unit for work. The choice of
problem depends on (1) whether the problem is the client‟s problem (2) leadership
given by case worker depends upon the professional knowledge and judgment and (3)
agency‟s function e.g. hospital, etc.
 Problems in any part of a human being‟s living tend to have chain reactions. …..>
cause > effect > cause..
 Any problem which a person encounters has both an objective and subjective

Problem
significance – quality and intensity of our feelings.
 Not only do the external (objective) and internal (subjective) aspects of the problem
co-exist, but either may be the cause of the other.
 Whatever the nature of the problem the person brings to social agency; it is always
accompanied and often complicated by the problem of being a client.
Problems can be categorized as follows (Grace Mathew):
1. Problems related to illness and disabilities
2. Problems due to lack of material resources.
3. School related problems.
4. Problems related to institutionalization.
5. Behaviour problems.
6. Problems of marital discord.
7. Problem situations needing a follow-up service.
8. Needs related to rehabilitation of people.
9. Clients caught up in social problems like gambling, prostitution, alcoholism, drug
addiction and unmarried motherhood.

III. Place:
 The social agency is an organization fashioned to express the will of a society or of some
group in that society as to social welfare – community decides the need of the agency.
 Each social agency develops a program by which to meet the particular areas of need
with which it sets out to deal. It depends on factors like money, knowledge and
competence of the agency staff, the interest, resources available and support of the
community.
 The social agency has a structure by which it organizes and delegates its responsibilities
and tasks, and governing policies and procedures Hierarchy – roles and responsibilities
clear, designated and delegated – collaboration procedures and policies, understand the
usefulness. by which it stabilizes and systematizes its operations. – among workers –
 The social agency is a living, adaptable organism susceptible to being understood and
Place

changed, much as other living organisms. – Past, present and future – not static and
fixed.
 Every staff member in an agency speaks and acts for some part of the agency‟s function,
and the case worker represents the agency in its individualized problem solving help. –
Case worker not an independent professional practitioner – case worker speaks and acts
for the agency – psychologically identified with its purpose and policies
 The case worker while representing his agency is first and foremost a representative of
his profession. – must know and be committed with feeling to the philosophy that guides
the practice of the social work profession.
 Agency – Private e.g. funding agencies and Public e.g. family welfare orgs.
 Primary e.g. NGO and Secondary e.g. Hospitals, schools, etc.
 Based on functions – child welfare, family welfare, education, specialization based.
 Also differs based on Source of support, Professional authority, Clientele they serve,
Services they offer, Goals of the agency, etc.

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IV. Process:
* In order to understand what the case work process must include in its problem-solving
help, it is necessary to take stock first of the kinds of blockings which occur in people‟s
normal problem-solving efforts. The six are:
1. If necessary tangible means and resources are not available to the person.
2. Out of ignorance or misapprehension about the facts of the problem or the facts of
existing ways of meeting it.
3. If the person is depleted or drained of emotional or physical energy.
4. Some problems arouse high feelings in a person – emotions so strong that they
overpower his reason and defy his conscious controls.
5. Problem may lie within the person; he may have become subject to, or victim of,
emotions that chronically, over a long time, have governed his thinking and action.
6. Haven‟t developed systematic habits or orderly method of things and planning.
 The intent of the case work process is to engage the person himself both in working
on and coping with the one or several problems that confront him and to do so by

Process
such means as may stand him in good stead as he goes forward in living
The means are
1. The provision of a therapeutic relationship
2. The provision of a systematic and flexible way and
3. Provision of such opportunities and aids.
 All competent problem-solving, as contrasted with trail-and-error method, contains
three essential operations. Urgent pressures will often dislodge their sequence, but
any conscious effort to move from quandary (difficulty) to solution must involve
these modes of action:
1. Study (fact-finding)
2. Diagnosis (thinking about and organizing facts into a meaningful goal-pointed
explanation) and
3. Treatment (implementation of conclusions as to what and how of action upon the
problem).
 Finally, for the solution or mitigation of many problems there must exist certain
material means or accessible opportunities which are available to the needful person
and which he can be helped to use. Kinds of resources that a person may need are
money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships, foster homes, recreation
facilities, etc.

 Transference: “Transference is a form of displacement in which the individual
unconsciously
Transference & Counter Transference

displaces onto a current object those drives defenses, attitudes, feelings and responses
which were experienced or developed in relationship with earlier objects (mainly persons)
in the individual‟s life.”
Unconscious attitudes and associated feelings transferred from the past onto the present
relationship, usually irrational.
The client transfers these into the present interaction because of some similarity of the
actors in the current situation with those he has encountered earlier in life (i.e. childhood).
May be positive (love, liking, etc) or negative (irrational, hostile feelings.
Can be tackled by clarification (clarifying reality), interpretation, spacing the interview, etc.
 Counter – transference:
- Social worker also has unconscious tendency to transfer on the client.
- The job of the case worker to recognize his feelings and must control them.
 Types of Transference:
Positive: E.g. Parents have shown to be friendly and helpful, the client will transfer a
desire to help, friendship, guidance, emotional support and interest.
Negative: E.g. Parents not shown interest and indifferent, the client will have feelings of
unfriendliness, suspicion and distrust.
 Uses of Transference (3 stages):
1. Understanding the transference – his behaviour, unconscious need of the client.
2. Utilizing the transference – integrate past and present experiences and earlier
relationships.
3. Interpreting the transference – careful analysis of his unconscious defenses. 15


Problem & Strength Perspective

Problem/Deficit Perspective Strengths Perspective
Person is defined as a “case” where Person is defined as unique where traits, talents,
symptoms add up to diagnosis resources add up to strengths
Problem-focused (history & symptoms) Possibility-focused (hopes & dreams)
Personal account aids in diagnosis Personal account is essential means to knowing the
of deficits, pathology, & problem whole person fully
Knowing the person from outside in Knowing the person from inside out
Blames the “victim” for their problems Believes in the individual/family
Childhood trauma is a precursor/ Childhood trauma is not predictive; may weaken,
predictor of psychopathology strengthen or typically do both
Centrepiece of therapeutic work is the Centrepiece of collaborative work: the goals and
treatment plan: goals set by practitioners aspirations set by individuals, families and communities
Practitioner is the expert on clients‟ Individual is the expert on his/her own life (problems,
problems, needs and lives goals, means to solution)
Professional designs and carries out the The design and execution of the helping effort is
“course of treatment” collaborative and mutual
Possibilities for choice, control and personal Possibilities for choice, control, and commitment are
development are limited by eficits/pathology always open
Resources for work are exclusively the Resources for work are the strengths, knowledge,
knowledge and skills of professional skills, abilities and adaptive capacities of the individual
Help is centered on reducing the Help is centered on making one‟s life be the best it can
effects of symptoms or the negative personal be, affirming/developing values/ commitments, making
and social consequences of actions, and finding membership in community
emotions or thoughts

Psychosocial Theory and Social Work Practice
Imran Ahmad Sajid
Peshawar University

Introduction
All social work practice-historically and currently-has relied on psychosocial concepts.
From the very beginning, social work has been dedicated to;
 The alleviation of sufferings and to the enhancement of human life.
Social Workers had been concerned that
 How to support the well-being of individuals and families
 How to respond to people’s need
 How to restore social functioning and
 How to better their interpersonal relationships and life situations.
In order to answer these questions the psychosocial approach grew up in social work practice.

Meaning of Psychosocial
The term “Psychosocial,” 1st used in 1899, means,
“pertaining to mind and society”.
“Relating Social Conditions to Mental Health”. Merriam Webster Dictionary.
The term “psychosocial” is the combination of two words, “psycho” means “ psychological”
and “social” means “relating to society, or the way in which people in groups behave and

16


interact”. So in this context psychosocial means “interaction of psychological and societal
forces / components”.

Psychosocial theory
Psychosocial theory says that individual and his environment are intertwined. Changes in one
system create changes in other systems.
 In other words individual’s behaviour is the product of psychological forces and societal
factors. His problem triggers not only due to psychological forces or social factors but by the
combination of both. Therefore the intervention strategy must address both the factors.

Client’s context
The client’s context is made up of many interacting systems-not only one system including
psychological, social, family, personality, school, work place etc.
Problem
 Problems are seen as a consequence of disequilibrium between individual and
environment.
 What psychosocial caseworkers to do to solve the problems is, to help client reduce the
disequilibrium between individual and their environment.
Aim of Treatment
 The psychosocial treatment often is not aimed at the so-called “pathological” or
“dysfunctional” aspects of the gestalt; rather, interventions are tailored to address those
aspects that are most accessible and most capable of change.
 Ameliorization of the client’s environment may result in enduring changes in the
personality or family system.

The Goal of Psychosocial Workers
The goal of psychosocial workers is to work collaboratively with clients to find optimal “fits”
between people and their social or physical surroundings.

Historical Origin and Development
Social work has always been profoundly influenced by the conditions and demands of the
day. During some periods, socio-economic forces received the greatest attention; at other
times, there was keener interest in understanding personality development and functions.
As our theory and knowledge base matured, the tendency to neglect either component
diminished significantly.

Mary Richmond:
She set the stage for the development of modern casework theory and practice. When she
published her first book, “friendly visiting among the poor: a handbook for charity
workers”, in 1899, she began formulating and evaluating practice concepts and techniques.

Some of her major ideas and findings are as follows:
1. Focus on the individual alone did not always help.
 Social relations and environment-past and present-are major forces shaping personality
 External influence had to be addressed in order to promote a better adjustment between
individual and the surrounding.
2. Case workers actual experience should be subjected to critical analysis, and their
efforts must be measured by best standards available.
 She outlined specific approaches to collection of “social evidence” from which inferences
were to be drawn, leading to “social study, diagnosis, and treatment planning process.
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3. Treatment must be individualized.
 She cautioned against generalization and stereotyping.
 Each person and each family is unique and must be studied and listened to separately.

Knowledge from Psychology and Psychiatry
 Psychology and psychiatry prevailed over social workers during WW-I up till 1950s.
 During 1920’s the sociological basis of social work was partially obscured by new ideas
of personality development, and emotional experiences etc.
 Freud’s thinking were particularly influencing.
 Inner “weakness” was too often blamed for miseries or crises that were primarily social in
origin. Family and socioeconomic influence was downplayed.

Ego Psychology
All approaches in ego psychology broadens the psychosocial casework horizon. Particularly
defense mechanism of Anna Freud, Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages,
ClientCentered therapy of Roger, and cognitive therapy are more important.
Ego Psychology:
Principles and Assumptions
1. People of all ages have the capacity to grow, learn, adapt and-at least to some degree-
modify their social and physical environment.
2. Psychological systems do not stand alone, but constantly interact with biological and social
systems.
3. People’s behaviour develop within the context of many open systems interacting in
mutually causative ways. Change in one system inevitably creates changes in other systems.
4. Family system provides most significant context for personality growth and development.
Problems of fit among family members are mutual.
5. Families are also subjected to stresses that come from larger systems, including poverty,
racism, etc. the daily lives of many clients are pervaded by these forces.

Assumptions from Ego psychology:
1. Significant feelings and thoughts lie outside of awareness.
2. Personality is fluid and dynamic system of forces that influences behaviour;
3. Defenses are constructed that serve bother positive and negative end.
4. Symptoms are adaptive attempts to uncover and resolve internal conflicts.
5. Neurosis is actually social in origin.

The Worker Client Relationship
 Successful treatment depends heavily on the quality of relationship between client and
worker.
 How to promote Positive Relationship?
1) Positive therapeutic relationship stems from the worker’s demonstration of non-
possessive warmth and concern, genuineness, accurate empathy, and non-judgmental
acceptance, along with his capacity to communicate optimism and professional
competence.
2) For client: he must mobilize some courage, hope and motivation to join the worker, and
to trust in his ability to help.

Obstacles in effective worker-client relationship:
 Numerous obstacles stand in the way of effective worker-client relationship;

18


 People seeking help feel anxious-with feeling of shame and failure to resolve difficulties.
 Fear of dependence on another may create apprehension
 Anticipatory fear- that the worker truly cannot understood their need or circumstances can
also hinder effective relationship.
 When the client is referred by some referring agency e.g. parents, school, court etc-in that
case the client’s willingness to engage in work may be impeded.

Approaches to Intervention
The approaches to intervention include;
 Psychosocial Study
 Psychosocial Assessment
 Psychosocial Intervention
1.Psycho-social Study
 Gathering The Facts vs. Interpreting Facts
 The primary emphasis in psychosocial casework is placed on understanding the client’s
dilemmas and what has contributed to them. This understanding is called psychosocial
study.
 It requires observation and gathering of accurate facts that are arranged in orderly
manner.
 Often the bulk of data is obtained in early interviews.

Initial Interviews
Facts gathering begins as the worker elicits from clients their perception of problems, what
they think led up to it, how they have attempted to remedy it, what they believe might help
now, and what other people, agencies or systems are involved.

Additional Source of Information
 Observations of the client’s nonverbal behaviours and demeanour and the dynamic of the
client-worker relationships, usually prove useful. The goal is fact gathering, not
interpretation.
 The psychosocial study of children requires collateral interviews with parents, teachers,
and other concerned.

Approaches to Intervention
Early Life History
Many problems in living emerge during the developmental phases of the individual and
family life cycle. Therefore early life history is also obtained for psychosocial study.

Psychosocial Assessment
 Psychosocial assessment begins by thinking critically about the facts gather in
psychosocial study. The worker’s task, now, is to conceptualize how the multiple
symptoms are interacting.
Assessment simultaneously addresses and formulates hypotheses about two major matters;
1. How and why a problem exists, and
2. Who and what is accessible to change.
 Only after determining where we can enter the constellation of multiple systems, and
which system or systems are probably most amenable to change, can effective treatment
strategies be designed.

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 Assessment identifies points of access and evaluates the capacity, motivation, and
opportunity for change-of individual, the family, the social networks, and communities.

Psychosocial Intervention
 Psychosocial treatment often uses a blend of individual, couple, family and environmental
modalities.
 In work with symptomatic children, family members are often the most important
resources for change.

Recap
Individual and his environment are intertwined. Changes in one bring changes in others. A
problem is the disequilibrium between individual and his environment. The worker’s goal is
to work collaboratively with the client and find an optimal fit between individual and his
physical and social surroundings.

20

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