Chapter 4 Popular methodology by Jeremy Harmer.pptx

Master of Education in Administration
and Teaching English
Course Title: Applied Linguistics
1
Mr. VATH VARY
Email: varyvath@gmail.com
Tel: 017 471117
Chapter 4
Popular Methodology

Contents
Introduction
Approach and Method
- Approach, method, procedure, and technique
- Traditional & contemporary approaches and
methods
Why is an approach or method adopted?
Instructor: Mr. VATH Vary
2

Introduction
Theories concerns with the
beliefs about what language
learning should be like
Teachers need to
understand how to teach
Approach/
method
Instructor: Mr. VATH Vary 3

Describing Methods
Approach:
- Theories about the nature of language and language learning
- Describe how language is used and how its constituent parts
interlocks
- Describe how people acquire their knowledge of L and makes
statements about the conditions which will promote successful
learning
Method:
- The practical classroom realization of an approach
- Includes various procedures and techniques
4

Describing Methods
Procedure
- An order sequence of techniques
- First you do this, then you do that ….
Techniques:
- a single activity rather than a sequence
- Implementational – that which actually takes place in
a classroom
- used to accomplish an immediate objective.

Summary
6
Approach
Method
Procedure
technique

Early
methods
Grammar-
translation
method
The direct
method
Audiolingual
method
Oral-
situational
approach

Grammar-Translation Method
Goal:
• learning a language is
to read its literature
(archaic words)
• Reading and writing
are the major focus
(NO attention to
speaking and writing)
• Reading of difficult
classical texts is begun
early.
• Classes are taught in the
mother tongue, with little
active use of the target
language.
• Much vocabulary is
taught in the form of lists
of isolated words on the
reading texts
• Learning of vocabulary
based on bilingual word
lists, dictionary, and
memorization
(translation equivalents)
• Grammar is taught
deductively with
emphasis on accuracy
• Long, elaborate
explanations of the
intricacies of
grammar are given.

Grammar-Translation Method
• Grammar provides
the rules for
putting words
together, and
instruction often
focuses on the
form and
inflection of
words.
• Little attention is
paid to the
content of texts,
which are treated
as exercises in
grammatical
analysis.
• Often the only drills
are exercises in
translating
disconnected
sentences from the
target language into
the mother tongue.
• Little or no attention
is given to
pronunciation.

Typical activities
used in the GTM
• Reading and translation of
literary passage
• Reading and
comprehension activities
• Deductive grammar
practice
• Antonyms/Synonyms
• Fill-in-the-blanks Exercise
• Use Words in Sentences
• Memorization practice
• Composition
Major Problem with
GTM:
focuses on the ability
to ‘analyse’ language
and not the ability to
‘use’ it.
11

The Direct Method
• imitated how L1 is learnt naturally, with first
listening, speaking as the primary skills,
reading and writing
• emphasized exposure to oral language
• Classroom instruction was conducted
exclusively in the target language.
• Oral communication skills in a careful graded
progression Meaning was related directly to
the target language, without the step of
translation
• Grammar was taught inductively
• New teaching points were taught through
modeling and practice.
• Concrete vocabulary was taught through
demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract
vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
• Correct pronunciation and grammar were
emphasized.
 emphasizes the
importance for L2
learners to have
the opportunity to
use the target
language to express
meaning.
❑ Impracticalities for
two main reasons:
○ (1) scarce time
available for second
language teaching;
○ (2) and limited
skills in language
teachers.

Typical activities used in the Direct
Method
• Read text aloud:
– Ss take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or
dialogue out loud
– At the end of each student’s turn, the teacher uses gestures,
pictures, realia, examples, or other means to make the
meaning of the section clear.
• Question and answer tasks:
– Ss are asked questions and answer in full sentences so that
they practice new words and grammatical structures
• Conversation tasks/practice
– T asks students a number of questions with a particular
grammar structure, and Ss have to be able to answer
correctly.

Typical activities used in the Direct
Method
• Fill in the blanks
• Dictation
• Self-correction
• Map Drawing
– Ss were given a map with the geographical features unnamed.
– Then T gave the students directions such as the following, ‘Find
the mountain range in the West. Write the words “Rocky
Mountains” across the mountain range.’
– T gave instructions for all the geographical features of the U.S.
so that Ss would have a completely labeled map if they followed
his instructions correctly
• Paragraph Writing

The Audiolingual
method
❑ Underpinned by a second language
acquisition theory called Behaviorism
❑ This theory argued that the child’s mind is a
tabula rasa and good language habits are
learned through the process of repetition,
imitation, and reinforcement
 stimuli (teaching
input),
 organism
(students)
 reactions (student
responses)

The Audiolingual
method
• L taught through speaking, often
manipulated without regard to meaning or
context
• Lessons begin with dialogues
• Target L is the language of the classroom.
• Repetition and drills lead to habit
formation
• Focus on avoidance of errors but accuracy
from the beginning (grammar and
pronunciation)
• Grammar is taught inductively (through
planned exposure)
• Skills are sequenced: first listening and
speaking are taught; reading and writing
are postponed
• Vocabulary is severely controlled and
limited in the initial stages
 Learner: Recipient
or imitator
 Teacher: Expert,
Linguist, or
provides error
correction,
proficient in the
structures,
vocabulary, and
other aspects of the
language

Audiolingual drill
Drill:
is a classroom technique used to practice new language. It involves
the teacher modeling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating
it or substituting a word in a sentence using the correct form.

Activities: ALM
• Mimicking native-speaker speech/ Repetition-based tasks:
• Acting out dialogues
• Ss memorize the dialogue through mimicry;
• Ss take the role of one person in the dialogue
• Pairs of Ss perform the dialogue for the rest of the class.
• Pronunciation activities: Use of Minimal Pairs
– pairs of words which differ in only one sound
– Ss are first asked to perceive the difference between the two words and
later to be able to say the two words.
• Complete the Dialogue
– Selected words are erased from a dialogue students have learned. Ss
complete the dialogue by filling the blanks with the missing words.
18

Activities: ALM
• Pattern or transformation drills
– Change a statement into a question, an active sentence into a passive
one, or direct speech into reported speech.
• Repetition Drill
• Ss are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly
as possible. This drill is often used to teach the lines of the dialogue.
• A chain drill:
– a chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one by
one, ask and answer questions of each other.
• Grammar games: Supermarket Alphabet Game
– designed to get students to practice a grammar point within a context.
Ss are able to express themselves, although in a limited way.
19

Activities: ALM
Single-slot Substitution Drill
• T says a line from the dialogue.
• T says a word or a phrase (cue).
• Ss repeat the line the teacher has
given them, substituting the cue
into the line in its proper place.
• Purpose: to give Ss practice in
finding and filling in the slots of a
sentence.
Multiple-slot Substitution Drill
20
• T gives cue phrases, one at a time,
that fit into different slots in the
dialogue line.
• Ss must recognize what part of speech
each cue is, or where it fits into the
sentence, and make any other
changes: subject–verb agreement.
• Ss then say the line, fitting the cue
phrase into the line where it belongs.

The Oral-Situational
Approach
• L teaching begins with spoken
language. Material is taught orally prior to
written form (reading and writing)
• Target L is the language of the
classroom.
• Vocabulary selection is learned
from most useful and general
vocabulary
• Items of grammar are graded from
simple forms to complex ones.
• The use of PPP: New language
(lexical and grammatical) is introduced
and practiced situationally.
– At the post office, at the bank, at the
dinner table…
 A British variant on
Audiolingualism
 Learner: Recipient or
imitator
 Teacher: Expert,
Linguist, or guide
 Activities: Guided
repetition and
substitution exercises:
 Choral, dictation,
drills
 Controlled oral-based
reading and writing
tasks

Communicative
Language teaching:
Communicative Approach
• Focus on functional aspect of
language: a system for
communication’
• learners’ message and fluency
• Interaction & authenticity of input
• Learning by doing through direct
practice
• The goal of L teaching is the
learners’ ability to communicate in
the target L
• Skills (listening, speaking, reading
and writing) are integrated from the
beginning
CLT
 makes use of
communicative
competence the goal of
language teaching
 and develop
procedures for the
teaching of the four
language skills that
acknowledge the
interdependence of L
and communication

1-23
Common ACTIVITIES of CLT
• Jig-saw activities:
 Divide each group into different parts of tasks and fit the pieces together to
complete the whole
• Task-completion activities:
 puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom tasks in which
the focus is on using one’s language resources to complete a task.
• Information-gathering activities:
 student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches in which students
are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information.
• Information-transfer activities:
 require learners to take information that is presented in one form, and
represent it in a different form. For example, they may read instructions on
how to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or
they may read information about a subject and then represent it as a
graph

1-24
Common ACTIVITIES of CLT
• Opinion-sharing activities:
 activities in which students compare values, opinions, or beliefs, such as
a ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance
that they might consider in choosing a date or spouse.
• Reasoning-gap activities:
 Derive some new information from given information through the
process of inference, practical reasoning, etc. For example,
working out a teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class
timetables.
• Role plays:
 activities in which students are assigned roles and improvise a
scene or exchange based on given information or clues.

CLT vs. Traditional
Approach Activities
 Pre-communicative
activities: accuracy-
based activities
which focus
presentation of
structures, functions,
and vocabulary
 Communicative
activities: fluency-
based activities
which focus on
information sharing
and information-
exchange
Mr. Vath Vary 25

Learner
active communicative participant
collaborator
negotiator – between the self, the learning
process, and the object of learning
1-26

1-27
Teacher roles
Facilitator Participants
Breen and Candlin
facilitate the communication
process between all participants
act as an independent participant
within the learning-teaching group
organizer
Resource
Guide Researcher &
learner

Teacher roles
Need Analyst
• Informal
on-to-one
session
 Learning
style, asset
and goal
• Formal
assessment
Counselor
• Model effective
communicator to
maximize the
meshing of
speaker intention
& interpretation
• Through the use
of paraphrase,
confirmation &
feedback
1-28
Group Process
manager
• Debrief the
activity
• Point out
alternatives
and extensions
• Assist groups
in self-
correction

Teaching
‘unplugged’
• This prompted Scott Thornbury to
write a short provocative article
suggesting that ELT needed similar
rescue action,
• A return to a materials- and
technology-free classroom in which
language emerges as teachers and
students engage in a dialogic
relationship
• Later Thornbury and Luke Meddings
codified this view of appropriate
language teaching as ‘teaching
unplugged’.
 In 1995, a group of film
makers led by the
Danish director Lars
von Trier drafted the
manifesto of the Dogme
95 Film-makers’
Collective, in which
they pledged to rescue
cinema from big
budget, special-effects-
dominated Hollywood
movies.
 They wanted to return
to core values, using no
artificial lighting, no
special effects, etc.

Dogme ELT features:
30
conversati
on-driven
• Interactive talk in the classroom drives procedures between the
students and between the students and the teacher whose
primary role is to scaffold the language that occurs
materials
-light
• Dogme teachers respond to their students’ needs and interests
(and texts),
• rather than bringing in pre-packaged material such as
coursebooks.
emergent
language
• NO prescribed syllabus: Dogme teachers work with learner
language, and view learner errors as learning opportunities
• The role of the teacher, in this view, is to respond to the
language that comes up, interacting with the students, and
helping them to say what they want more correctly and, perhaps,
better.

What is task-based
language Teaching
(TBLT)?
• Peter Skehan'S (1998a: 95)
concept of task seems to
capture the essentials:
– meaning is primary;
– there is some communication
problem to solve;
– there is some sort of
relationship to comparable
real-world activities;
– • task completion has some
priority;
– and the assessment of the task
is in terms of outcome.
 an approach based on
the use of tasks as the
core unit of planning
and instruction in
language teaching.
TBLT is also called:
 Task-Based Language
Learning,
 Task-Based
Instruction,
 The Task-Based
Approach

What is task-based language Teaching
(TBLT)?
The key assumptions of task-based instruction are:
 Focus on process;
 Emphasis on communication and meaning;
 The use of real world outcomes (authenticity)
 Language learned by interacting communicatively and
purposefully; •
 Activities and tasks can be achieved in real life and have a
pedagogical purpose;
 Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced
according to difficulty.

Types of Learning and Teaching Activities
 Jigsaw tasks: they involve L2 learners to combine different pieces
of information
 Information gap tasks: they involve L2 learners to find out a set of
information to complete the task
 Problem-solving tasks: they involve L2 learners to find out a set
of they involve L2 learners to find a solution to “a problem”
 Decision-making tasks: they involve L2 learners to identify problems
and possible outcomes
 Opinion exchange tasks: they involve L2 learners to engage in
discussion and exchange ideas

(TBLT)?
Learner roles
Group
participant
Monitor
risk taker;
innovator

(TBLT)?
teacher roles
Selector and
sequencer of
task
Creates
authentic,
meaning-
focused activities
Interaction
supporter
Monitor:
focus on
form

TBTL
• T explores the topic with the class and may
highlight useful words and phrases, helping the
Ss to understand the task instructions. Ss may
hear a recording of other people doing the same
task.
– Ss perform the task in pairs or small
groups while the teacher monitors from a
distance. Ss plan how they will tell the
rest of the class what they did and how it
went, and they then report on the task,
either orally or in writing, and/or
compare notes on what has happened.
• Ss examine and discuss specific features of any
listening or reading text which they have looked
at for the task and/or the teacher may conduct
some form of practice of specific language
features which the task has provoked and offer
‘offline correction’
36

TBLT
37

The lexical
approach
• L consists not of traditional grammar
and vocabulary but often of multi-
word prefabricated chunks:
– Chunks are formed by collocations,
idioms, fixed and semi-fixed phrases
– a way of analysing and teaching
language based on this
• Principles:
– Encountering new learning items on
several occasions is a necessary but
sufficient condition for learning to occur.
– Noticing lexical chunks or collocations is
a necessary but not sufficient condition
for “ input” to become “ intake.
Learners:
 Data and discourse
analyst, discover or
strategic learners
Teachers:
 language analyst,
facilitate data-driven
and discovery-based
learning

The lexical approach: Activities
Awareness activities:
• noticing of chunks instead of
teaching. E.g will for the
future: I’ll give you a ring,
I’ll be in touch, I’ll see what I
can do, I’ll be back in a
minute, etc.
Training in text chunking
• involves asking students to
highlight or underline word
strings in an authentic text
that they consider to be
multiword units (e.g., strong
collocations).
Memory-enhancing activity: Elaboration
• diverse mental operations, beyond mere
noticing
• consists in thinking about a term’s
spelling, pronunciation, grammatical
category, meaning, and associations
with other words as well as thinking
which involves the formation of visual
and motoric images related to the
meaning of the term
Retelling
• After studying a text with a particular
focus on the chunks, students take part
in retelling (summarizing) activities
attempting to use the same chunks

40
Four old
humanistic
methods
(1970s and
1980s)
Community
language
learning
Suggestopae
dia
Total physical
response
The Silent
Way

Community language learning
Developed by Charles
Curran.
• application of
counselling
learning to F/S
language
teaching and
learning
Key Features:
• Focus on the
whole person and
the affective side
of learning and
experience of
learning process
• Emphasis on
providing a safe
environment for
learning
Key Features:
• Make use of group
learning in small
or large groups:
“community”.
• Counselor-client
relationship

Community language learning
Teacher (counselor):
• As “Counselor:
• Learners say things which they
want to talk about in L1.
• T translates the learner’s
sentences into FL, and the learner
then repeats this to other
members of the group.
• Support learning by offering a
safe environment
• Interaction: monitor learner
utterances
Learner (client):
• Community member: fellow
learners and teacher
• Attentive listeners
• Repeat target utterances
• Support fellow learners
• Report frustration and joy
• Counselor of the fellow

CLL: Activities

CLL procedures: counselor-client
relationship.
• A group of learners sit in a circle with the
teacher standing outside the circle:
– a student whispers a message in L1
– the teacher translates it into L2;
– the student repeats the message in the foreign
language into an audio recorder;
– students compose further messages in the foreign
language with the teachers help;
– students reflect about their feelings.

CLL: Procedure

Suggestopaedia
Developed by Georgi
Lozanov
• Also known as
desuggestopedia,
suggestopedy
• a pedagogical
application of
“suggestology”,
the influence of
suggestion on
human behaviour.
Key Features:
• Influence of
unconscicous
learning
• Use of music for
relaxation: intonation
and rhythm are
coordinated with a
musical background to
relax learner …
Key Features:
• … and structure,
pace, and
punctuate the
presentation of
linguistic material
• Decoration,
furniture and
arrangement
(shape of chair) of
classroom

Suggestopaedia
Teachers
• Create suitable learning
environments
• Authority
• Skilled in acting, and
psychotherapeutic
techniques
• Teacher-student relation
as in parent to child
(infantilization)
• Learners
• Receptors (take on
personality and name)
Activities:
• Imitation
• Questions and
answer
• Role play
• Listening practice
• Music-based
activities
• Memorizing vocab
pairs: L1 & L2
3 functions of music
(Gaston, 1968)
• Facilitate the
establishment and
maintenance of
personal relations
• Bring about increased
self-esteem through
increased self-
satisfaction in musical
performance
• Use the unique
potential of rhythm to
energize and bring
order

Suggestopaedia: Procedure
•
First
concert
• This involves the active presentation of the material to be
learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might
be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by
classical music
Second
concerts
• The students are now invited to relax and listen to some
Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the
background. The music is specially selected to bring the
students into the optimum mental state for the effortless
acquisition of the material.
Practice
• The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and
consolidate the learning and the course finishes with the
students planning, writing and delivering their own group
performance.

Total physical response
Developed James Asher
(professor of Psychology)
• Comprehension
precedes production
• Main focus on listening
and acting.
• Learning is supported
by body movement
• built around the
coordination of speech
and action
Learner
• listener
• Performer
or actor
Teacher as director
• creates a relaxed and
stress-free
environment where
students focus on
meaning interpreted
by movement.
• Leads the stage in
which Ss are actors
• Controls used in
class

Total physical response
Activities:
• Imperative drills: used to elicit
physical actions and activities on the
part of learners.
• Role plays: in restaurant, hospitals
• Slide presentations: visual aids for
teacher narration.
• Reading and writing activities: further
consolidate structures and vocabulary,
and as follow-up to oral imperative
drills
Materials
• teacher’s voice, actions and
gestures
• Common classroom objects,
such as books, pens, cups
and furniture
• Pictures, slides and word
charts

TPR: Pedagogical Procedures
Review
• A fast-moving warm-up which individual students were moved with
commands such as: Pablo, drive your car around Miako.
Using
command
s to direct
behavior
• Ss learn new material, vocabulary, and verbs that will pertain to the
commands: These verbs were introduced: Wash… your hands, your
face, your hair; Look for … a towel, the soap, and a comb.
• Next, T asks simple questions: where is the towel? (Ss, point to the towel)
Role
reversal
• Ss readily volunteered to utter commands that manipulated the
behavior of T and other Ss ...
Action
sequence
• Let’s say the command is:
• “touch your head with your right hand.” L2 learners process the command and
physically complete the task as fast as possible. The gauge for success is how rapid
the response is.

The Silent Way
Developed by Caleb
Gattegno:
• Teaching should be
subordinated to
learning
• Giving Ss as much
opportunity to
produce L in class
as possible
• Learning is facilitated:
• if the learner discovers or creates rather
than remembers and repeats what is to
be learned.
• by accompanying (mediating) physical
• by problem-solving involving the
material to be learned

The Silent Way
Learner
• Problem-solver
• Discoverer
• Autonomous,
responsible learner
• Collaborator with other
learners
teacher:
• Technician or engineer facilitates
learning
• silently monitors learner’s
interaction
• Uses gesture or action or charts
to elicit and shape student
production with minimal
speaking on T’s part

Activities: The
Silent Way
• Use of Cuisenaire rods:
– small colored rods of varying
lengths–and a series of colorful
wall charts to illustrate the
relationships between sound and
meaning in the target language.
– The rods were used to introduce:
• Vocabulary: colors, numbers,
• adjectives (long, short, and so on)
• Verbs: give, take, pick up, drop),
• Syntax: tense, comparatives,
pluralization, word order
• Materials
– Sound–Color Chart, Rods, Word
Chart & Fidel Charts
 Pronunciation and
Guided elicitation
exercises, followed by
practice
 Peer Correction; Self-
correction Gestures
55

Fidel Chart
• The pronunciation charts, called “
Fidels,” have been devised for a
number of languages and contain
symbols in the target language for all
of the vowel and consonant sounds
of the language.
56

Procedure:
presentation, practice and production
57
Presentation:
• T introduces a
situation which
contextualises
the language to
be taught.
• The language is
then presented.
Practice
• Ss practise the language,
using accurate
reproduction techniques:
• choral repetition:
where they repeat a
word, phrase or
sentence all together
with the teacher
‘conducting’
• and individual
repetition
Production:
• Ss use the new
language to
make
sentences of
their own
(personalisation)

Oral-Situational Language Teaching
A sequence of Five Activities (Richards & Rogers, 2015)
1. Presentation: The new structure is introduced and
presented.
2. Controlled practice: learners are given intensive practice in
the structure, under the teacher’s guidance and control
3. Free practice: the students practice using the structure
without any control by the teacher
4. Checking: teacher elicits use of the new structure to check
that it has been learned
5. Further practice: the structure is now practiced in new
situations or in combination with other structures
58

Variations on
PPP
• Keith Johnson (1982) suggested
the ‘deep-end strategy’ as an
alternative:
• Production:
– encourage the students into
immediate production
• Presentation and Practice:
– If Ss having problems during this
production phase, then return to
either presentation or practice
when necessary after the
production phase is over

ESA
(Harmer, 2007)
• “E” engage
– Get the students engaged before
asking them to do something like
a written task, a communication
game or a role-play.
• “S” study:
– describe any teaching and
learning element (meaning
and form) where the focus is
on how something is
constructed. T then models the
language and the students
repeat and practise it.
• “A” activate
– any stage at which the
students are encouraged to use
all and/or any of the language
they know

Why is an approach or method adopted?
 Factors responsible for the rise and fall of
methods:
 Paradigm shifts:
- influences of linguistics, psychology, and SLL
 Network support:
- ministry of education, key educational administrator, leading
academics, and professional bodies and organization promote
a new approach or method
 Practicality:
- simplicity, little time to master, conformity to common sense,
used in many different kinds of situations, require special
training and resources
 Teacher’s language proficiency
- mostly non-native L teachers: e.g. no advocates of
Direct Method
61

Why is an approach or method adopted?
 Used as the basis for published materials and tests
- some instructional designs can readily be used as
basis for syllabuses, courses, textbooks, and tests:
- Some methods are widely promoted by publishers
and their representatives
 Compatibility with local traditions
- Culture determines the style of teaching and
learning
- Teacher-centered or student-centered
 Eclecticism
- Most teachers and educational institutions are far less
prescriptive examining a range of different methods

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