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Manuscript prepared for Clim. Past
with version 1.3 of the LTEX class copernicus.cls.
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Date: 12 December 2008




Mid-Holocene regional reorganization of climate variability
K. W. Wirtz1 , K. Bernhardt1,2 , G. Lohmann3 , and C. Lemmen1
1
  GKSS Research Center Geesthacht, Institute for Coastal Research, Max-Planck Straße 1, 21501 Geesthacht, Germany
2
  Carl-von-Ossietzky Universit¨ t Oldenburg, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM),
                               a
Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany
3
  Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, P.O. Box 180, 27483 Bremerhaven, Germany


Abstract. We integrate 130 globally distributed proxy time        et al., 2004). Refined accuracy of paleorecords and of noise
series to refine the understanding of climate variability dur-     reduction methods has disclosed a series of distinct shifts
ing the Holocene. Cyclic anomalies and temporal trends            from most proxies for the last 11,500 years (Barber et al.,
in periodicity from the Lower to the Upper Holocene are           2004; Kim et al., 2007). These shifts attract further attention
extracted by combining Lomb-Scargle Fourier-transformed           for at least four reasons.
spectra with bootstrapping. Results were cross-checked by            (1) Disruptions have—with the exceptions of the Saharan
counting events in the time series. Main outcomes are: First,     desertification at 5,500 yr BP (Claussen et al., 1999) and
the propensity of the climate system to fluctuations is a re-      the 8.2 kyr event (Renssen et al., 2001)—not yet been re-
gion specific property. Many records of adjacent sites re-         produced by numerical modeling. Mechanistic understand-
veal a similar change in variability although they belong to      ing of the complex interplay between ice, ocean, atmosphere
different proxy types (e.g., δ 18 O, lithic composition). Sec-    and vegetation bundled in regional climate sub-systems is far
ondly, at most sites, irreversible change occured in the Mid-     from being complete (Steig, 1999).
Holocene. We suggest that altered ocean circulation to-              (2) We also still lack knowledge about the spatial ex-
gether with slightly modified coupling intensity between re-       tension of prominent disruptions (deMenocal et al., 2000b;
gional climate subsystems around the 5.5 kyr BP event (ter-       Sirocko, 2003; Mayewski et al., 2004). So far, only the work
mination of the African Humid Period) were responsible for        of Rimbu et al. (2004) based on 18 records of alkenone sea
the shift. Fluctuations especially intensified along a pan-        surface temperature worldwide revealed consistent regional
American corridor. This may have led to an unequal crisis         differences of climate variability.
probability for early human civilizations in the Old and New         (3) Holocene climate fluctuations define the range of nat-
World. Our study did not produce evidence for millennial          ural variability to which the signatures of anthropogenic in-
scale cyclicity in some solar activity proxies for the Upper      terference with the Earth system should be compared (von
Holocene, nor for a privileged role of the prominent 250,         Storch et al., 2004; Moberg et al., 2005). Attribution
550, 900 and 1450 yr cycles. This lack of global periodicities    and analysis of past shifts is pivotal for assessing ongoing
corroborates the regional character of climate variability.       changes, as well as reproduction of recorded natural variabil-
                                                                  ity (of the Holocene) by models is a prerequisite for simulat-
                                                                  ing future climates (in the Anthropocene).
1   Introduction                                                     (4) Another motivation to seek for past, but not too remote
                                                                  alterations, especially in regional temperature or moisture is
There was hardly any period in Earth’s history that expe-         the “breeding” role of the Holocene for civilizations. While
rienced more stability in the climate system than did the         its stability has been claimed to be responsible for their ris-
Holocene. According to Richerson et al. (2001), even the on-      ing, instabilities are first candidates for explaining their col-
set of human civilizations is owed to the lack of large climate   lapses. This idea is reflected by numerous studies where in-
fluctuations, since change was the constant rule for all pre-      dividual outbreaks in proxy time series have been correlated
ceding glacial as well as interglacial periods within the Qua-    with eclipses of ancient empires (Fagan, 1999; Anderson,
ternary. The notion of a stable Holocene climate has been,        2001; deMenocal, 2001; Binford, 2001). Provoked by the
meanwhile, questioned by many researchers (e.g. Fairbridge        simplicity of this approach, a large group of historical scien-
and Hillaire-Marcel, 1977; Bond et al., 1997c; Mayewski           tists dislike such intrusion by geoscience into their discipline
2                                                                Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION

(Erickson, 1999; Coombes and Barber, 2005).                                                                     40 64 66
                                                                                                                          65
                                                                                                                                94100
                                                                                                            46       67 76
                                                                                                                      50
   Fragmented (model) knowledge and controversy are hence                            1
                                                                                        5      8
                                                                                                           47      55     69
                                                                                                                          58
                                                                                           7 11 19             52 57 53
                                                                                                                68
                                                                                                                        59 70                             119
                                                                                                                                                           123
characterizing both the effects as well as causes of singu-                 2     4
                                                                                   3
                                                                                        9 10
                                                                                        21
                                                                                                27              128 62
                                                                                                                  60
                                                                                                                         71 74
                                                                                                                  48 63 75 80
                                                                                                                                         96
                                                                                                                                                101
                                                                                                                                              102109 103 112
                                                                                                   37                                      97
lar Holocene climate shifts. Evidence for the nearly regular                    6
                                                                                     14 13     26            51
                                                                                                               54        81
                                                                                                                             83
                                                                                                                                82        92
                                                                                                                                         89              113
                                                                                                                                                 98 114111
                                                                                                                                                   107
                                                                                                                                                         106
                                                                                                                                   90 93              116 115
cyclicity of events, however, seems to be firm. Predominant                            12 17
                                                                                     16     32
                                                                                      18 34 35
                                                                                                  31        49                         88
                                                                                                                                  87 91 95
                                                                                                                                                   105
                                                                                                                                                       120 117
                                                                                                                                                        108 118
modes of punctuated disruptions on millennial time scales                            15 20
                                                                                              36
                                                                                                      44 43
                                                                                                                              84 73
                                                                                                                               77 78
                                                                                                                                                      110121
                                                                                                                                                              122
                                                                                       22
have since long been identified (e.g. Fairbridge and Hillaire-                             23
                                                                                           29 28
                                                                                                        45
                                                                                                                       61
                                                                                                                            85 86
                                                                                                                             79

Marcel, 1977). For the North Atlantic, the 1450 yr period-                                    30
                                                                                                     38
                                                                                                                             72
                                                                                                                                                              125
icity was proposed by Bond et al. (1997c), and is relevant in                                25
                                                                                                 24
                                                                                                                                                           127
tropical regions as well (deMenocal et al., 2000b; Thomp-                                                            56                                 124

                                                                                                      33
son et al., 2003b). On the centennial time scale, recurrent                                                                     104 129
                                                                                                                           126 99
                                                                                                                                  130
climate anomalies were detected by McDermott et al. (2001)
or Sarnthein et al. (2003b). Often, an external trigger was
suspected behind the quasi-cyclicity—above all variations of         Fig. 1. Global distribution of high-resolution proxy time series used
solar activity (e.g., Hodell et al., 2001c; Bond et al., 2001c).     in this study. Numbers of the 130 records (109 sites) refer to Tab. 2.
   Spectral analysis can indicate system properties of the
global climate (like stability, turn-over times, regularity of
modes) and helps to identify active teleconnections which            ing in coarse temporal resolution, open ocean locations are
are generated by the coupling of sub-systems and their feed-         underrepresented with respect to coasts and land masses
backs. If extended to external forcings, analysis in the fre-        (Fig. 1). 77% of the records have temporal resolution bet-
quency domain will shed light on the possible origin of shifts.      ter than 100 yr and 80% span more than 9000 yr within
Sensitivity to variable forcing can, for example, be estimated       the period 12 kyr BP to the present (see Tab. 1 and
using the quantitative relationship of spectral intensities (De-     Tab. 2). 68 data sets are accessible from one of the Pub-
bret et al., 2007). We here provide such a reconstruction of         lishing Network for Geoscientific & Environmental Data
the spectral behavior inherent to climate proxy time series          (PANGEA, www.pangea.de) or the National Climate Data
with global coverage and for the entire Holocene. Former             Center (NOAA NCDC, www.ncdc.noaa.gov). The remain-
data reviews were mostly centered around an eventual syn-            ing time series were digitized with an error of less than 2%
chronicity or spatial intensity of shifts (e.g. Mayewski et al.,     from original publications .
2004; Sepp¨ et al., 2007), while spectral synthesis studies
              a                                                         We chose to analyze time series based on quantities that
cover either a single climate zone or a shorter interval within      serve as proxies for temperature, effective moisture (i.e. pre-
the Holocene (e.g. Morrill et al., 2003; Moberg et al., 2005).       cipitation − evaporation), and rarely also wind regime, not
   Here, a spectral analysis technique is introduced that is         unlike Mayewski et al. (2004). Records were excluded which
adapted to unravel the temporal wax and wane of dominant             involve more complex relationships to climate, such as pro-
fluctuation modes. Operating with this tool on a global set           ductivity or stable carbon isotopes. The types of records are
of proxy time series, we not only aim to address the question        broadly categorized in Tab. 1 into (1) isotope fractionation,
of how quasi-cyclic modes were distributed worldwide and             mostly δ 18 O, (2) lithic composition, and (3) relative species
which factors could be tentatively claimed being responsi-           abundance (tree pollen or algae). In addition, solar activity
ble for them. Acknowledging the observation that millennial          was inferred from 10 Be abundance and 14 C flux (Bond et al.,
as well as centennial modes are discontinuous or even miss-          2001c).
ing in a number of high-resolution records (e.g. Noren et al.,
2002b; Moberg et al., 2005), our study focuses on tempo-             2.1 Lomb-Scargle spectral analysis
ral and spatial trends in the intensity of climate fluctuation
modes. The study of variability trends in time and space re-         We employ a spectral analysis since this approach is not sen-
flects in particular the questions: Has the climate system of         sitive against possible absolute dating errors. Spectral infor-
the Holocene continuously stayed in a unique state? Does its         mation can be interpreted independently from the different
stability (sensu retaining of large shifts) as well as instability   and sometimes uncertain correlations of individual variables
(disposition to minor fluctuations) reflect a global property          with the climate state (like for isotope fractionation in ice
or distinct regional features?                                       cores, lake or marine sediments, or pollen composition) what
                                                                     allows to use a broader spectrum of proxy types. If one is in
                                                                     particular interested in the temporal change of power spectra,
2   Selection of proxy data                                          wavelet transformation is usually the method of choice (Moy
                                                                     et al., 2002; Moberg et al., 2005). However, wavelets require
In total 130 long-term high-resolution time series obtained          evenly sampled time-series, while time sequences of proxy
at 109 globally distributed sites were collected from ex-            records are mostly irregular. To avoid the introduction of a
isting literature. Due to low sedimentation rate result-             spectral bias by interpolation and, in addition, to make the
Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION                                                                               3

method also applicable to records with relatively few sam-         2.2 Non-cyclic event frequency
ples, we base our approach on the procedure suggested by
Schulz and Mudelsee (2002).                                        The analysis in the frequency domain is cross-checked by a
                                                                   simple counting method relying on a straightforward defini-
   This means to employ a Lomb-Scargle Fourier trans-              tion of climate events. After removal of the 2 kyr running
form followed by a bias correction with correction                 mean, the time series are normalized by their standard de-
factor obtained from a theoretical red-noise spec-                 viation. Frequency peaks are considered as a distinct event
trum which, in turn, is rooted on a Monte-Carlo en-                if (1) they exceed a threshold pa and (2) are separated by a
semble of 1000 first order autoregressive processes.                zero-line crossing to the preceding event. By using in par-
We use version 3.5 of the software package REDFIT                  allel a vector of thresholds pa = 1.5−1,0,1,2 the method is
(www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/softlib/redfit/redfit.html) with            made robust with respect to the choice of pa . The non-cyclic
parameters ofac=4, hifac=0 and two Welch windows with              event frequency is calculated as the average number of events
an overlap of 50%, and assume a 95% confidence level                for different thresholds pa , divided by the length of the time
for identifying significant spectral anomalies. For time            period.
series with a small fraction (n) of data points in each Welch
window, we follow the recommendation by Thomson (1990)
                                                                   3   Results
and take 1 − 1/n as the threshold for significance.
                                                                   3.1 Mid-Holocene change in climate modes
   Acknowledging the notion of a globally visible Mid-
Holocene climatic change (e.g. Steig, 1999; Morrill et al.,        The way how changes in the spectral intensity are detected by
2003) we split the time series into two overlapping inter-         our method is visualized in Fig. 2 for three selected records,
vals; these intervals (12–5.5 kyr BP and 6.5–0 kyr BP) will        i.e. temperature reconstruction for Southeast Europe, δ 18 O at
be referred to as Lower and Upper Holocene, respectively.          Sajama, Bolivia, and solar activity from Greenland ice cores.
The initial age 12kyr BP compromises between the different         Only those frequency peaks that are with 95% probability not
starting points of the time-series which in some cases reflect      compatible with red noise mark a significant mode. Random
the globally asynchronous onset of the Holocene. The ex-           displacement of proxy values in one half of the Holocene
act choice of the starting age, however, was not found to be       dampens some of those modes, as, for example, obvious for
critical for our analysis.                                         the 1/340 yr cycles in Southeast Europe temperature during
                                                                   the Upper Holocene. For isotopic oxygen at Sajama, spectral
   In order to diagnose the change in spectral intensity from      changes are manifold. The 1/900 yr mode vanishes when
Lower to Upper Holocene we employ a selective bootstrap.           either of the two halves is distorted by bootstrapping, and the
Randomly chosen data points were substituted with also             two prominent centennial cycles (1/250 yr, 1/200 yr) appear
randomly chosen values from the same part (Lower/Upper             in the Upper Holocene only. In this period, the well known
Holocene). Subsequently, the spectrum is examined for              1000 yr mode of solar activity turns out to be absent. Just by
changes in significance. We obtained good results for 5000          visual inspection, one could suspect its presence in the Lower
realizations with substitution fraction of 33% for each time       Holocene according to the relatively high spectral intensity,
series. From this we statistically identified local long-term       the value of which, however, is below the critical threshold
changes in the variability signal. Either for the entire spec-     for significance.
trum or for a frequency window we checked whether its                 Apart from the three example records, we detected in all
spectral significance is sensitive to bootstrapping. If a mode      130 time series 223 significant modes in the spectral inter-
looses significance by bootstrapping in the upper interval, but     val between 1/200 yr and 1/1800 yr (see also Fig. 3). When
endures changes in the lower part, this corresponds to a pos-      contrasting Lower with Upper Holocene, 62 of these peaks
itive change in cyclicity (periodic signal originates from the     gain significance while 24 loose it. We also checked for
Upper Holocene part of the time-series). The opposite be-          prominent frequencies: neither the presence of modes nor
havior (sensitivity in bootstrapping the lower and robustness      their changes did accumulate in particular spectral windows.
in the upper time interval) is attributed to a negative temporal   Instead, we found a relatively flat histogram of significant
trend.                                                             frequency bands (Fig. 3).

   Spatial clustering of locations is performed by radially ex-    3.2 Regional clustering of spectral properties
trapolating the peak intensity I from each record location
with exponential decrease (I · exp(−r/1500 km)). Peak in-          Only a minority of sites reveal significant modes in the Lower
tensity is a binary measure with I = 1 if at site i the sum of     Holocene. After applying the clustering algorithm, absence
all available local proxy information significantly indicates       of oscillations is globally the norm except for small regions
the presence/increase of frequencies, and I = −1 for nega-         in the North Atlantic (tropical western and northern parts),
tive trends.                                                       East Africa and Antarctica (red areas in Fig. 4). In the Upper
4                                                                                                              Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION


                       2.25                                                                                                                                 −20                                 AR 95%




                                                                                                                           Spectral intensity (dB)
                                                                                                                                                                                                Total
                                                                                                                                                            −30                                 Lower
                   Anomaly (σ)



                                 1
                                                                                                                                                                                                Upper
                                                                                                                                                            −40

                                 1                                                                                                                          −50
                                                                              SE Europe
                   −2.25                                                   Temp. Anomaly


                       2.25




                                                                                                                           Spectral intensity (dB)
                   Anomaly (σ)




                                 1
                                                                                                                                                             0

                                 1                                                                                                                          −20
                                                                           Sajama, Bolivia
                   −2.25                                                            δ18O                                                                    −40



                       2.25                                                                                                                                 40




                                                                                                                                  Spectral intensity (dB)
                   Anomaly (σ)




                                 1
                                                                                                                                                            20


                                                                                                                                                             0
                                 1
                                                                             Sunspot number
                   −2.25
                                                Upper                                             Lower
                             Present           2               4                  6               8       10       ka BP                                          1000   500       333        250    200
                                                                                                                                                                         Recurrence time (yr)


Fig. 2. Three selected records: Temperature reconstruction for Southeast Europe, (Davis et al., 2003b), isotopic oxygen at Sajama, Bolivia
(Thompson et al., 2003b) and sunspot number from Greenland ice cores (Solanki et al., 2004b). Left: De-trended and normalized data.
Non-cyclic events according our definition with pa =1.5 are marked with red triangles. Right: Spectral amplitudes after applying the Lomb-
Scargle transformation (black: total record, red: bootstrapping of upper interval, thus indicating periodicity confined to the Lower Holocene,
green: Upper Holocene spectrum). Dashed lines indicate significant frequencies.


                                                                                                                  Holocene, North Atlantic and in particular eastern Ameri-
                                                                                                                  can sites with dominant modes build large regional clusters.
                  35                                                                                              The global distribution of locations with changes in spectral
                                                                                                                  modes displayed in Fig. 5 demonstrates that these are re-
                  30                                                                                              markably homogeneous within these regional clusters. Clus-
                                                                                                                  ters are generally made out of about 4–9 sites with indepen-
                  25
                                                                                                                  dent proxy records which, in their large majority, exhibit the
Number of peaks




                  20
                                                                                                                  same spectral trend.
                                                                                                                     Obviously, damping or amplification of a climate fluctu-
                  15
                                                                                                                  ation mode is only modestly affected by the heterogeneous
                  10
                                                                                                                  quality of records, inherent random noise or other local phe-
                                                                                                                  nomena. The spectral differences between the two selected
                  5                                                                                               temperature related records shown above, i.e. for Southeast
                                                                                                                  Europe and Bolivia, can therefore be extrapolated to collec-
                  0
                  1800           1000   694   530   430    360       310    272       244   220   200             tions of large areas at sub-continental scale. Like for the two
                                                      Cyclicity (yr)
                                                                                                                  centennial cycles at Sajama, new modes appear during the
                                                                                                                  Mid-Holocene in North and entire South-West America, East
Fig. 3. Histogram of dominant modes in all 130 records.                                                           and North Atlantic and East Asia. Contrary, climate fluctu-
                                                                                                                  ations fade out in eastern South America/West Atlantic, the
                                                                                                                  Arctic, East Africa and, to some extent also South-East Asia.
Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION                                                                                     5

              Periodic modes, Upper Holocene
                                                                          become more oscillatory while the contrary happened for
                                                                          the entire Southwest Atlantic. Overall, cycles with periods
                                                                          smaller than 850 yr are more likely to be enhanced in the
                                                                          Upper Holocene compared to millenial modes.

                                                                          3.3 Cross-validation with trends in non-cyclic event fre-
                                                                              quency

                                                                          Our second indicator for the spatio-temporal organization of
                                                                          climate variability which is the density change in non-cyclic
                                                                          events from the first to the second half of the Holocene, turns
                                                                          out to be spatially coherent as well (Fig. 7). Though, the
              Periodic modes, Lower Holocene                              longitudinal separation for non-cyclic frequency change is
                                                                          differently oriented compared to the Lomb-Scargle derived
                                                                          trends in Fig. 5. Abundance of climatic shifts is, for exam-
                                                                          ple, decreasing in East Asia where due to the spectral pic-
                                                                          ture one would expect an increase. However, the pronounced
                                                                          Mid-Holocene enhancement of climate variability in a Pan-
                                                                          American corridor is equally reproduced, and the increase in
                                                                          periodic spectral power in the East Atlantic corridor is cor-
                                                                          roborated for the southern part. The analysis of non-cyclic
                                                                          events also confirms spatial patterns in centennial spectral
                                                                          trends (Fig. 6, left).
Fig. 4. Sites with significant periodicity (red, without: blue) in the
Upper and Lower Holocene. For spatial extrapolation see Meth-
                 .
ods, results for proxies related to solar activity are displayed in the
yellow polygon.                                                           4   Spectral divorce at Mid-Holocene

                 Change in periodic modes                                 From the literature on Holocene climate variability one could
                                                                          expect that at least four frequencies play a privileged role
                                                                          in our spectral analysis. The two millennial scale oscilla-
                                                                          tions which comprise the 900 yr periodicity extracted in the
                                                                          GISP2 δ 18 O records by Schulz and Paul (2002); Rimbu et al.
                                                                          (2004) and the classical 1450 yr period (e.g. O’Brien et al.,
                                                                          1995) are points of reference for many paleo-proxy studies.
                                                                          In addition, a 320 yr and a 550 yr cycle have been repeat-
                                                                          edly observed in proxy records as well as output of general
                                                                          circulation models (GCM) with reduced complexity (Weijer
                                                                          and Dijkstra, 2003; Weber et al., 2004; Te Raa and Dijkstra,
Fig. 5. Change .in periodic fluctuations from the Lower to the Up-         2003). However, none of the four modes arose more promi-
per Holocene (positive change: red, negative: blue, no significance:       nently than others within our global study. The most ro-
empty circle, significant mode without change: filled black).               bust result, instead, derives from an apparent non-stationary
                                                                          of regular climate oscillations. Only about 10% of spectral
                                                                          peaks are stable, i.e. found over the entire period as well as
                                                                          after partial boostrapping. This substantiates our hypothe-
   The spatial organization of clusters persist after mapping             sis that around the 5.5kyr event (termination of the African
the change for two frequency sub-domains. In Fig. 6, Mid-                 Humid Period) the climate system may have undergone an
Holocene trends separated according centennial and millen-                irreversible re-organization. So far, non-stationary variabil-
nial cycles still occur in great spatial uniformity. Since the to-        ity has only been reported for regional systems, like the
tal band-width is higher for all centennial modes, their global           Southern Pacific with its decadal to centennial cyclicity re-
trend pattern also largely resemble the one for the entire fre-           lated to the El Ni˜ o Southern Oscillation (ENSO, Moy et al.,
                                                                                            n
quency band (1/200 yr – 1/1800 yr), with the exception that               2002). Previous review studies, however, weren’t aware of
the disappearance of regular climate shifts in the East At-               the global dimension of the re-organization between Lower
lantic is less pronounced. The clustering in Fig. 5 as well               and Upper Holocene. One reason for this may be the refer-
as the differentiated spectral map (Fig. 6) reveal a clear lon-           ence character of Greenland and the North Atlantic. Records
gitudinal pattern. For example, nearly all East Pacific sites              from this area show persistent millennial cycles (Bond et al.,
6                                                                 Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION

               Change in periodic modes (200-850 yr)                             Change in periodic modes (860-1800 yr)




               .
Fig. 6. Change in periodic fluctuations from the Lower to the Upper Holocene separated according spectral interval (for symbols, see Fig. 5).



                  Change in non-cyclic events                           tive teleconnections to which the monsoon is sensitive. For
                                                                        example, it has been speculated that the atmospheric con-
                                                                        nection between the western Asian monsoon and the ther-
                                                                        mohaline circulation (THC) in the North Atlantic decreased
                                                                        in intensity from the Lower to the Upper Holocene (Morrill
                                                                        et al., 2003). This might explain a reduced correlation be-
                                                                        tween trends in millenial and non-cyclic modes in the two
                                                                        climate sub-systems observed in our study.


                                                                        5   Possible mechanisms for variability changes

                                                                        In face of the fragmented understanding of the mechanisms
Fig. 7. Negative and positive Mid-Holocene change in non-cyclic         producing climate shifts or quasi-cyclic fluctuations during
               .
frequency (number of events per millennium). Red areas collect          the Holocene, it seems premature to ask for what may have
sites where non-cyclic frequency increased by more than 0.1 events      caused their temporal change or their regional organization.
kyr−1 more in the Upper compared to the Lower Holocene. In blue         We here only briefly discuss the possible role of ocean and
areas, anomaly frequency decreases by more than 0.1 events kyr−1 .      atmospheric circulation, and of external forcings.
                                                                           The sun’s influence on Holocene climate variability has
                                                                        been deduced from the synchronicity of climate anomalies
1997c), in contrast to nearly all other locations around the            and variations in solar activity (e.g. Bond et al., 2001c;
globe. There, a temporal switch of modes is more often                  Hodell et al., 2001c). Our analysis includes records of cos-
found than their persistence.                                           mogenic nuclide production (10 Be and 14 C flux) as well as
   A second major outcome of our study is the regional uni-             reconstructed sunspot number of Solanki et al. (2004b), and
formity of temporal trends. Although coverage of many re-               shows persistence of the 208 yr Suess cycle together with a
gions is yet much below a value that allows for statistically           damping of millennial modes after 6 kyr BP (Fig. 2 and yel-
firm conclusions, the similar, albeit not equal, global distri-          low sun in Fig. 5–6). A recent analysis of the sunspot number
bution of changes in periodic (Fig. 5 as well as non-periodic           power spectrum (Dima and Lohmann, 2005) identified peri-
(Fig. 7) modes and the consistent clustering of adjacent sites          ods of 6,500, 2,500, 950 and 550 yr. Debret et al. (2007)
which, in general, comprise different proxy types, should be            already questioned the hypothesis of Bond et al. (2001a) that
taken as a strong indication for a regionalization of variabil-         the 1500 yr cycles are due to variations in solar activity. Still,
ity modes. Equal trends are even more homogeneously clus-               the possibility of solar variability being amplified by oceanic
tered for non-periodic climate variability. They remarkably             feedbacks can not be entirely excluded (Renssen et al., 2006).
differ from cyclic trends in Eurasia. Nevertheless, all modes              Central in the literature discussion is the THC, which is
(centennial, millennial and non-cyclic) intensified during the           connected to North Atlantic deep water formation. The THC
Holocene in a longitudinal zone crossing the Peruvian up-               is commonly considered the primary process for the gener-
welling area and North-east America. A counterexample,                  ation of climate fluctuations on interdecadal or centennial
though, against spatial uniformity is evident through the scat-         (Broecker et al., 1985) as well as millennial time scales
ter of modal trends within the East Asian monsoon system.               (Stocker et al., 1992; Weijer and Dijkstra, 2003). Schulz
This may be due to its internal complexity and various ac-              and Paul (2002), however, questioned its connection with
Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION                                                                               7

the prominent 1450 yr oscillation. The Iceland–Scotland            (in the frequency space) at Cariaco Basin ˜3,800 years ago in-
overflow water is an important component of the thermoha-           dicative for tropical reorganization of the hydrological cycle.
line circulation. Its record contains dominant periodicities       Similar millennial-scale hydrologic variability is reported at
of 1,400 and 700 years associated with THC variations over         other locations (Koutavas et al., 2002; Ekdahl et al., 2005).
the Holocene (Bianchi and McCave, 1999). It is conceivable            Most of the transitions overstress the capabilities of con-
that ocean circulation changes, like those of the Atlantic mul-    current climate models, but it is useful to compare the in-
tidecadal oscillations, modulate SST variability in the North      duced variability with internal oscillatory modes (without ex-
Atlantic basin on centennial and longer timescales. Particu-       ternal trigger) which are seen in models of reduced complex-
lar THC variations are detected for the Mid-Holocene in the        ity (Mikolajewicz and Maier-Reimer, 1990; Weijer and Di-
ocean circulation through hydrographic changes (R¨ hlemann
                                                       u           jkstra, 2003). Model perturbation experiments reveal eigen-
et al., 2004), which were more pronounced in the early             modes on millennial time scales. These modes are gen-
Holocene (Kim et al., 2007).                                       erated by the advection of buoyancy anomalies around the
   To understand the atmospheric circulations related to           overturning loop, both in a single-hemispheric basin lead-
Holocene variability, one can look for analogous patterns          ing to centennial modes or throughout the global ocean re-
during the instrumental period. This procedure was used to         sponsible for millennial cycles. The most negative eigen-
explore the physical processes producing SST patterns and          values (strongest damping) was found for centennial oscilla-
thereby to understand recorded Holocene SST changes (Mar-          tions (Weijer and Dijkstra, 2003; Te Raa and Dijkstra, 2003).
chal et al., 2002; Rimbu et al., 2004; Lorenz et al., 2006). The   However, such modes could be activated if fluctuations in
spatial pattern of Northern Hemisphere SST reconstructions         radiative energy input are included into simulation studies
for the Holocene emphasizes a North Atlantic Oscillation           (Weber et al., 2004).
trend towards its negative phase, a feature which can be re-
produced by a coupled climate model (Lorenz and Lohmann,
2004). This trend is overlaid by 2,400 and 900 yr cycles           6   Consequences for cultural development?
(Rimbu et al., 2004), consistent with other proxy data sets
                                                                   The evidence that climate variability was not uniformly dis-
and solar variation.
                                                                   tributed over the globe, gains a new aspect to the dispute
   Other mechanisms behind temporally changing modes in-
                                                                   of whether or how Holocene climate affected the develop-
clude (1) high frequency “noise” (2) low frequency orbital
                                                                   ment of human societies. We propose that frequency of cli-
forcing, and (3) particular events. The Pacific decadal oscil-
                                                                   mate changes rather than average characteristics made an ef-
lation and the El Ni˜ o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) show
                       n
                                                                   fective difference between inhabited world regions. In par-
long-term enhancement (Moy et al., 2002; Rimbu et al.,
                                                                   ticular cultures situated in the Pan-American corridor have
2004). The origin of high frequency fluctuations is contro-
                                                                   seen a significant rise in event frequency by about two ad-
versially discussed but a combination of nonlinear oceano-
                                                                   ditional disruptions more per millenium after 6 kyr BP. It is
graphic interactions in the tropical Pacific and orbital forcing
                                                                   well imaginable that increased climate variability meant an
well fits into model-based and instrumental evidence (Cle-
                                                                   elevated stress for early American societies. Repeated cul-
ment et al., 1999; Loubere et al., 2003). These fluctuations
                                                                   tural discontinuities go well beyond the effects of singular
may have activated multicentennial modes (Simmonds and
                                                                   events. In western Asia, like in many other world regions,
Walland, 1998). Phase transitions in climate sub-systems
                                                                   the probability of climatic shifts (also visible as centennial
could also be triggered by a slow change in insolation. Given
                                                                   modes) declined over the Holocene. Ancient civilizations in
the wider distribution of millennial modes after the cessa-
                                                                   the Near East or later in southern Europe were challenged by
tion of oscillations in solar activity at 6 kyr BP, we suggest
                                                                   abrupt climatic changes and resulting subsistence crises with
that the Mid-Holocene reversal of insolation change differ-
                                                                   much lower frequency. In his Pullitzer price winning work,
ently affected regional subsystems. As a result, oceanic or
                                                                   J. Diamond related the lagged development between Old and
atmospheric teleconnections between subsystems could have
                                                                   New World before the colonization era to differences in bio-
weakened or strengthened. Such shifts were possibly me-
                                                                   diversity determined by the geographical orientation of the
diated by dislocations of convergence zones or trade winds,
                                                                   Americas with respect to Eurasia (Diamond, 1999). We here
thereby modifying the damping and amplification forces of
                                                                   suggest that climate variability should be taken into consider-
modes (Lohmann and Lorenz, 2007).
                                                                   ation in these conceptual approaches and also in quantitative
   Intensification of ENSO in the Mid-Holocene, with a pro-
                                                                   approaches to simulating the effect of climate on human pre-
gressive increase in frequency to periodicities of 2 to 8.5
                                                                   history (e.g., Wirtz and Lemmen, 2003).
years, is believed to mark the onset of modern-day precip-
itation patterns in low-latitude regions (Rodbell et al., 1999).
Analysis of archives in northern Africa indicate strong re-        7   Conclusions
ductions in tropical trees and Sahelian grassland cover, which
allowed large-scale dust mobilization after 4,300 yr BP (Kro-      Our analysis substantiates two hypotheses. First, the propen-
pelin et al., 2008). Haug et al. (2001) found a large transition   sity of the climate system to amplify external fluctuations
8                                                                     Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION

or to endogenously generate them is not a global prop-                    Barber, K., Zolitschka, B., Tarasov, P., and Lotter, A. F.: Atlantic
erty, but differs among regions. Secondly, most regional                    to Urals – the Holocene climatic record of Mid-Latitude Europe,
propensities underwent a irreversible change during the Mid-                in: Past Climate Variability through Europe and Africa, edited by
Holocene. Fluctuations especially intensified along a Pan-                   R.W. Battarbee, F. G. and Stickley, C., vol. 6 of Developments in
American corridor. This eventually led to an unequal prob-                  Paleoenvironmental Research, Springer, Dordrecht, 2004.
                                                                          Barker, P. A., Street-Perrott, F. A., Leng, M. J., Greenwood, P. B.,
ability of crisis for early human civilizations in the Old and
                                                                            Swain, D. L., Perrott, R. A., Telford, R. J., and Ficken, K. J.: A
New World.
                                                                            14,000-Year Oxygen Isotope Record from Diatom Silica in Two
   Our study did not produce evidence for millennial scale                  Alpine Lakes on Mt. Kenya, Science, 292, 2307–2310, 2001.
cyclicity in solar activity proxies for the Upper Holocene,               Benson, L., Kashgarian, M., Rye, R., Lund, S., Paillet, F., Smoot, J.,
nor for a privileged role of the prominent 250, 550, 900 and                Kester, C., Mensing, S., Meko, D., and Lindstr¨ m, S.: Holocene
                                                                                                                               o
1450 yr cycles. This finding corroborates the regional na-                   multidecadal and multicentennial droughts affecting Northern
ture of climate variability. It seems likely that altered ocean             California and Nevada, Quatern. Sci. Rev., 21, 659–682, 2002.
circulation together with slightly modified coupling intensity             Bianchi, G. and McCave, I.: Holocene periodicity in North Atlantic
between subsystems (regional interplay of ice, ocean, atmo-                 climate and deep-ocean flow south of Iceland, Nature, 397, 515–
sphere and vegetation) after the 5.5 kyr BP event made these                517, 1999.
                                                                          Binford, L. R.: Constructing Frames of Reference, University of
subsystems either more or less prone to oscillations. The
                                                                            California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2001.
discussion of possible mechanisms behind changed climate
                                                                          Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., de-
variability, however, has to be substantiated by future mod-                Menocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I., and Bonani, G.:
elling studies.                                                             A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene
                                                                            and glacial climates, pp. 1257–1266, 1997a.
Acknowledgements. We thank Karin Holmgren, Detlef Gronen-                 Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., de-
born, Hans von Storch, Dennis Bray, Victor Brovkin for help-                Menocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I., and Bonani, G.:
ful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. Sabrina               A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene
Solms and Sonja Dorendorf are acknowledged for assisting with               and glacial climates, Science, 278, 1257–1266, 1997b.
the compilation of data and literature. C.L was supported by the          Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., de-
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG priority program INTER-                Menocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I., and Bonani, G.:
DYNAMIK) and the Dutch Agency for Environmental Assessment                  A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene
(MNP Bilthoven).                                                            and glacial climates, pp. 1257–1266, 1997c.
                                                                          Bond, G., Kromer, B., Beer, J., Muscheler, R., Evans, M. N., Show-
                                                                            ers, W., Hoffmann, S., Lotti-Bond, R., Hajdas, I., and Bonani,
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Mid Holocene Climate reorganization

  • 1. Manuscript prepared for Clim. Past with version 1.3 of the LTEX class copernicus.cls. A Date: 12 December 2008 Mid-Holocene regional reorganization of climate variability K. W. Wirtz1 , K. Bernhardt1,2 , G. Lohmann3 , and C. Lemmen1 1 GKSS Research Center Geesthacht, Institute for Coastal Research, Max-Planck Straße 1, 21501 Geesthacht, Germany 2 Carl-von-Ossietzky Universit¨ t Oldenburg, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), a Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany 3 Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, P.O. Box 180, 27483 Bremerhaven, Germany Abstract. We integrate 130 globally distributed proxy time et al., 2004). Refined accuracy of paleorecords and of noise series to refine the understanding of climate variability dur- reduction methods has disclosed a series of distinct shifts ing the Holocene. Cyclic anomalies and temporal trends from most proxies for the last 11,500 years (Barber et al., in periodicity from the Lower to the Upper Holocene are 2004; Kim et al., 2007). These shifts attract further attention extracted by combining Lomb-Scargle Fourier-transformed for at least four reasons. spectra with bootstrapping. Results were cross-checked by (1) Disruptions have—with the exceptions of the Saharan counting events in the time series. Main outcomes are: First, desertification at 5,500 yr BP (Claussen et al., 1999) and the propensity of the climate system to fluctuations is a re- the 8.2 kyr event (Renssen et al., 2001)—not yet been re- gion specific property. Many records of adjacent sites re- produced by numerical modeling. Mechanistic understand- veal a similar change in variability although they belong to ing of the complex interplay between ice, ocean, atmosphere different proxy types (e.g., δ 18 O, lithic composition). Sec- and vegetation bundled in regional climate sub-systems is far ondly, at most sites, irreversible change occured in the Mid- from being complete (Steig, 1999). Holocene. We suggest that altered ocean circulation to- (2) We also still lack knowledge about the spatial ex- gether with slightly modified coupling intensity between re- tension of prominent disruptions (deMenocal et al., 2000b; gional climate subsystems around the 5.5 kyr BP event (ter- Sirocko, 2003; Mayewski et al., 2004). So far, only the work mination of the African Humid Period) were responsible for of Rimbu et al. (2004) based on 18 records of alkenone sea the shift. Fluctuations especially intensified along a pan- surface temperature worldwide revealed consistent regional American corridor. This may have led to an unequal crisis differences of climate variability. probability for early human civilizations in the Old and New (3) Holocene climate fluctuations define the range of nat- World. Our study did not produce evidence for millennial ural variability to which the signatures of anthropogenic in- scale cyclicity in some solar activity proxies for the Upper terference with the Earth system should be compared (von Holocene, nor for a privileged role of the prominent 250, Storch et al., 2004; Moberg et al., 2005). Attribution 550, 900 and 1450 yr cycles. This lack of global periodicities and analysis of past shifts is pivotal for assessing ongoing corroborates the regional character of climate variability. changes, as well as reproduction of recorded natural variabil- ity (of the Holocene) by models is a prerequisite for simulat- ing future climates (in the Anthropocene). 1 Introduction (4) Another motivation to seek for past, but not too remote alterations, especially in regional temperature or moisture is There was hardly any period in Earth’s history that expe- the “breeding” role of the Holocene for civilizations. While rienced more stability in the climate system than did the its stability has been claimed to be responsible for their ris- Holocene. According to Richerson et al. (2001), even the on- ing, instabilities are first candidates for explaining their col- set of human civilizations is owed to the lack of large climate lapses. This idea is reflected by numerous studies where in- fluctuations, since change was the constant rule for all pre- dividual outbreaks in proxy time series have been correlated ceding glacial as well as interglacial periods within the Qua- with eclipses of ancient empires (Fagan, 1999; Anderson, ternary. The notion of a stable Holocene climate has been, 2001; deMenocal, 2001; Binford, 2001). Provoked by the meanwhile, questioned by many researchers (e.g. Fairbridge simplicity of this approach, a large group of historical scien- and Hillaire-Marcel, 1977; Bond et al., 1997c; Mayewski tists dislike such intrusion by geoscience into their discipline
  • 2. 2 Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION (Erickson, 1999; Coombes and Barber, 2005). 40 64 66 65 94100 46 67 76 50 Fragmented (model) knowledge and controversy are hence 1 5 8 47 55 69 58 7 11 19 52 57 53 68 59 70 119 123 characterizing both the effects as well as causes of singu- 2 4 3 9 10 21 27 128 62 60 71 74 48 63 75 80 96 101 102109 103 112 37 97 lar Holocene climate shifts. Evidence for the nearly regular 6 14 13 26 51 54 81 83 82 92 89 113 98 114111 107 106 90 93 116 115 cyclicity of events, however, seems to be firm. Predominant 12 17 16 32 18 34 35 31 49 88 87 91 95 105 120 117 108 118 modes of punctuated disruptions on millennial time scales 15 20 36 44 43 84 73 77 78 110121 122 22 have since long been identified (e.g. Fairbridge and Hillaire- 23 29 28 45 61 85 86 79 Marcel, 1977). For the North Atlantic, the 1450 yr period- 30 38 72 125 icity was proposed by Bond et al. (1997c), and is relevant in 25 24 127 tropical regions as well (deMenocal et al., 2000b; Thomp- 56 124 33 son et al., 2003b). On the centennial time scale, recurrent 104 129 126 99 130 climate anomalies were detected by McDermott et al. (2001) or Sarnthein et al. (2003b). Often, an external trigger was suspected behind the quasi-cyclicity—above all variations of Fig. 1. Global distribution of high-resolution proxy time series used solar activity (e.g., Hodell et al., 2001c; Bond et al., 2001c). in this study. Numbers of the 130 records (109 sites) refer to Tab. 2. Spectral analysis can indicate system properties of the global climate (like stability, turn-over times, regularity of modes) and helps to identify active teleconnections which ing in coarse temporal resolution, open ocean locations are are generated by the coupling of sub-systems and their feed- underrepresented with respect to coasts and land masses backs. If extended to external forcings, analysis in the fre- (Fig. 1). 77% of the records have temporal resolution bet- quency domain will shed light on the possible origin of shifts. ter than 100 yr and 80% span more than 9000 yr within Sensitivity to variable forcing can, for example, be estimated the period 12 kyr BP to the present (see Tab. 1 and using the quantitative relationship of spectral intensities (De- Tab. 2). 68 data sets are accessible from one of the Pub- bret et al., 2007). We here provide such a reconstruction of lishing Network for Geoscientific & Environmental Data the spectral behavior inherent to climate proxy time series (PANGEA, www.pangea.de) or the National Climate Data with global coverage and for the entire Holocene. Former Center (NOAA NCDC, www.ncdc.noaa.gov). The remain- data reviews were mostly centered around an eventual syn- ing time series were digitized with an error of less than 2% chronicity or spatial intensity of shifts (e.g. Mayewski et al., from original publications . 2004; Sepp¨ et al., 2007), while spectral synthesis studies a We chose to analyze time series based on quantities that cover either a single climate zone or a shorter interval within serve as proxies for temperature, effective moisture (i.e. pre- the Holocene (e.g. Morrill et al., 2003; Moberg et al., 2005). cipitation − evaporation), and rarely also wind regime, not Here, a spectral analysis technique is introduced that is unlike Mayewski et al. (2004). Records were excluded which adapted to unravel the temporal wax and wane of dominant involve more complex relationships to climate, such as pro- fluctuation modes. Operating with this tool on a global set ductivity or stable carbon isotopes. The types of records are of proxy time series, we not only aim to address the question broadly categorized in Tab. 1 into (1) isotope fractionation, of how quasi-cyclic modes were distributed worldwide and mostly δ 18 O, (2) lithic composition, and (3) relative species which factors could be tentatively claimed being responsi- abundance (tree pollen or algae). In addition, solar activity ble for them. Acknowledging the observation that millennial was inferred from 10 Be abundance and 14 C flux (Bond et al., as well as centennial modes are discontinuous or even miss- 2001c). ing in a number of high-resolution records (e.g. Noren et al., 2002b; Moberg et al., 2005), our study focuses on tempo- 2.1 Lomb-Scargle spectral analysis ral and spatial trends in the intensity of climate fluctuation modes. The study of variability trends in time and space re- We employ a spectral analysis since this approach is not sen- flects in particular the questions: Has the climate system of sitive against possible absolute dating errors. Spectral infor- the Holocene continuously stayed in a unique state? Does its mation can be interpreted independently from the different stability (sensu retaining of large shifts) as well as instability and sometimes uncertain correlations of individual variables (disposition to minor fluctuations) reflect a global property with the climate state (like for isotope fractionation in ice or distinct regional features? cores, lake or marine sediments, or pollen composition) what allows to use a broader spectrum of proxy types. If one is in particular interested in the temporal change of power spectra, 2 Selection of proxy data wavelet transformation is usually the method of choice (Moy et al., 2002; Moberg et al., 2005). However, wavelets require In total 130 long-term high-resolution time series obtained evenly sampled time-series, while time sequences of proxy at 109 globally distributed sites were collected from ex- records are mostly irregular. To avoid the introduction of a isting literature. Due to low sedimentation rate result- spectral bias by interpolation and, in addition, to make the
  • 3. Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION 3 method also applicable to records with relatively few sam- 2.2 Non-cyclic event frequency ples, we base our approach on the procedure suggested by Schulz and Mudelsee (2002). The analysis in the frequency domain is cross-checked by a simple counting method relying on a straightforward defini- This means to employ a Lomb-Scargle Fourier trans- tion of climate events. After removal of the 2 kyr running form followed by a bias correction with correction mean, the time series are normalized by their standard de- factor obtained from a theoretical red-noise spec- viation. Frequency peaks are considered as a distinct event trum which, in turn, is rooted on a Monte-Carlo en- if (1) they exceed a threshold pa and (2) are separated by a semble of 1000 first order autoregressive processes. zero-line crossing to the preceding event. By using in par- We use version 3.5 of the software package REDFIT allel a vector of thresholds pa = 1.5−1,0,1,2 the method is (www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/softlib/redfit/redfit.html) with made robust with respect to the choice of pa . The non-cyclic parameters ofac=4, hifac=0 and two Welch windows with event frequency is calculated as the average number of events an overlap of 50%, and assume a 95% confidence level for different thresholds pa , divided by the length of the time for identifying significant spectral anomalies. For time period. series with a small fraction (n) of data points in each Welch window, we follow the recommendation by Thomson (1990) 3 Results and take 1 − 1/n as the threshold for significance. 3.1 Mid-Holocene change in climate modes Acknowledging the notion of a globally visible Mid- Holocene climatic change (e.g. Steig, 1999; Morrill et al., The way how changes in the spectral intensity are detected by 2003) we split the time series into two overlapping inter- our method is visualized in Fig. 2 for three selected records, vals; these intervals (12–5.5 kyr BP and 6.5–0 kyr BP) will i.e. temperature reconstruction for Southeast Europe, δ 18 O at be referred to as Lower and Upper Holocene, respectively. Sajama, Bolivia, and solar activity from Greenland ice cores. The initial age 12kyr BP compromises between the different Only those frequency peaks that are with 95% probability not starting points of the time-series which in some cases reflect compatible with red noise mark a significant mode. Random the globally asynchronous onset of the Holocene. The ex- displacement of proxy values in one half of the Holocene act choice of the starting age, however, was not found to be dampens some of those modes, as, for example, obvious for critical for our analysis. the 1/340 yr cycles in Southeast Europe temperature during the Upper Holocene. For isotopic oxygen at Sajama, spectral In order to diagnose the change in spectral intensity from changes are manifold. The 1/900 yr mode vanishes when Lower to Upper Holocene we employ a selective bootstrap. either of the two halves is distorted by bootstrapping, and the Randomly chosen data points were substituted with also two prominent centennial cycles (1/250 yr, 1/200 yr) appear randomly chosen values from the same part (Lower/Upper in the Upper Holocene only. In this period, the well known Holocene). Subsequently, the spectrum is examined for 1000 yr mode of solar activity turns out to be absent. Just by changes in significance. We obtained good results for 5000 visual inspection, one could suspect its presence in the Lower realizations with substitution fraction of 33% for each time Holocene according to the relatively high spectral intensity, series. From this we statistically identified local long-term the value of which, however, is below the critical threshold changes in the variability signal. Either for the entire spec- for significance. trum or for a frequency window we checked whether its Apart from the three example records, we detected in all spectral significance is sensitive to bootstrapping. If a mode 130 time series 223 significant modes in the spectral inter- looses significance by bootstrapping in the upper interval, but val between 1/200 yr and 1/1800 yr (see also Fig. 3). When endures changes in the lower part, this corresponds to a pos- contrasting Lower with Upper Holocene, 62 of these peaks itive change in cyclicity (periodic signal originates from the gain significance while 24 loose it. We also checked for Upper Holocene part of the time-series). The opposite be- prominent frequencies: neither the presence of modes nor havior (sensitivity in bootstrapping the lower and robustness their changes did accumulate in particular spectral windows. in the upper time interval) is attributed to a negative temporal Instead, we found a relatively flat histogram of significant trend. frequency bands (Fig. 3). Spatial clustering of locations is performed by radially ex- 3.2 Regional clustering of spectral properties trapolating the peak intensity I from each record location with exponential decrease (I · exp(−r/1500 km)). Peak in- Only a minority of sites reveal significant modes in the Lower tensity is a binary measure with I = 1 if at site i the sum of Holocene. After applying the clustering algorithm, absence all available local proxy information significantly indicates of oscillations is globally the norm except for small regions the presence/increase of frequencies, and I = −1 for nega- in the North Atlantic (tropical western and northern parts), tive trends. East Africa and Antarctica (red areas in Fig. 4). In the Upper
  • 4. 4 Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION 2.25 −20 AR 95% Spectral intensity (dB) Total −30 Lower Anomaly (σ) 1 Upper −40 1 −50 SE Europe −2.25 Temp. Anomaly 2.25 Spectral intensity (dB) Anomaly (σ) 1 0 1 −20 Sajama, Bolivia −2.25 δ18O −40 2.25 40 Spectral intensity (dB) Anomaly (σ) 1 20 0 1 Sunspot number −2.25 Upper Lower Present 2 4 6 8 10 ka BP 1000 500 333 250 200 Recurrence time (yr) Fig. 2. Three selected records: Temperature reconstruction for Southeast Europe, (Davis et al., 2003b), isotopic oxygen at Sajama, Bolivia (Thompson et al., 2003b) and sunspot number from Greenland ice cores (Solanki et al., 2004b). Left: De-trended and normalized data. Non-cyclic events according our definition with pa =1.5 are marked with red triangles. Right: Spectral amplitudes after applying the Lomb- Scargle transformation (black: total record, red: bootstrapping of upper interval, thus indicating periodicity confined to the Lower Holocene, green: Upper Holocene spectrum). Dashed lines indicate significant frequencies. Holocene, North Atlantic and in particular eastern Ameri- can sites with dominant modes build large regional clusters. 35 The global distribution of locations with changes in spectral modes displayed in Fig. 5 demonstrates that these are re- 30 markably homogeneous within these regional clusters. Clus- ters are generally made out of about 4–9 sites with indepen- 25 dent proxy records which, in their large majority, exhibit the Number of peaks 20 same spectral trend. Obviously, damping or amplification of a climate fluctu- 15 ation mode is only modestly affected by the heterogeneous 10 quality of records, inherent random noise or other local phe- nomena. The spectral differences between the two selected 5 temperature related records shown above, i.e. for Southeast Europe and Bolivia, can therefore be extrapolated to collec- 0 1800 1000 694 530 430 360 310 272 244 220 200 tions of large areas at sub-continental scale. Like for the two Cyclicity (yr) centennial cycles at Sajama, new modes appear during the Mid-Holocene in North and entire South-West America, East Fig. 3. Histogram of dominant modes in all 130 records. and North Atlantic and East Asia. Contrary, climate fluctu- ations fade out in eastern South America/West Atlantic, the Arctic, East Africa and, to some extent also South-East Asia.
  • 5. Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION 5 Periodic modes, Upper Holocene become more oscillatory while the contrary happened for the entire Southwest Atlantic. Overall, cycles with periods smaller than 850 yr are more likely to be enhanced in the Upper Holocene compared to millenial modes. 3.3 Cross-validation with trends in non-cyclic event fre- quency Our second indicator for the spatio-temporal organization of climate variability which is the density change in non-cyclic events from the first to the second half of the Holocene, turns out to be spatially coherent as well (Fig. 7). Though, the Periodic modes, Lower Holocene longitudinal separation for non-cyclic frequency change is differently oriented compared to the Lomb-Scargle derived trends in Fig. 5. Abundance of climatic shifts is, for exam- ple, decreasing in East Asia where due to the spectral pic- ture one would expect an increase. However, the pronounced Mid-Holocene enhancement of climate variability in a Pan- American corridor is equally reproduced, and the increase in periodic spectral power in the East Atlantic corridor is cor- roborated for the southern part. The analysis of non-cyclic events also confirms spatial patterns in centennial spectral trends (Fig. 6, left). Fig. 4. Sites with significant periodicity (red, without: blue) in the Upper and Lower Holocene. For spatial extrapolation see Meth- . ods, results for proxies related to solar activity are displayed in the yellow polygon. 4 Spectral divorce at Mid-Holocene Change in periodic modes From the literature on Holocene climate variability one could expect that at least four frequencies play a privileged role in our spectral analysis. The two millennial scale oscilla- tions which comprise the 900 yr periodicity extracted in the GISP2 δ 18 O records by Schulz and Paul (2002); Rimbu et al. (2004) and the classical 1450 yr period (e.g. O’Brien et al., 1995) are points of reference for many paleo-proxy studies. In addition, a 320 yr and a 550 yr cycle have been repeat- edly observed in proxy records as well as output of general circulation models (GCM) with reduced complexity (Weijer and Dijkstra, 2003; Weber et al., 2004; Te Raa and Dijkstra, Fig. 5. Change .in periodic fluctuations from the Lower to the Up- 2003). However, none of the four modes arose more promi- per Holocene (positive change: red, negative: blue, no significance: nently than others within our global study. The most ro- empty circle, significant mode without change: filled black). bust result, instead, derives from an apparent non-stationary of regular climate oscillations. Only about 10% of spectral peaks are stable, i.e. found over the entire period as well as after partial boostrapping. This substantiates our hypothe- The spatial organization of clusters persist after mapping sis that around the 5.5kyr event (termination of the African the change for two frequency sub-domains. In Fig. 6, Mid- Humid Period) the climate system may have undergone an Holocene trends separated according centennial and millen- irreversible re-organization. So far, non-stationary variabil- nial cycles still occur in great spatial uniformity. Since the to- ity has only been reported for regional systems, like the tal band-width is higher for all centennial modes, their global Southern Pacific with its decadal to centennial cyclicity re- trend pattern also largely resemble the one for the entire fre- lated to the El Ni˜ o Southern Oscillation (ENSO, Moy et al., n quency band (1/200 yr – 1/1800 yr), with the exception that 2002). Previous review studies, however, weren’t aware of the disappearance of regular climate shifts in the East At- the global dimension of the re-organization between Lower lantic is less pronounced. The clustering in Fig. 5 as well and Upper Holocene. One reason for this may be the refer- as the differentiated spectral map (Fig. 6) reveal a clear lon- ence character of Greenland and the North Atlantic. Records gitudinal pattern. For example, nearly all East Pacific sites from this area show persistent millennial cycles (Bond et al.,
  • 6. 6 Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION Change in periodic modes (200-850 yr) Change in periodic modes (860-1800 yr) . Fig. 6. Change in periodic fluctuations from the Lower to the Upper Holocene separated according spectral interval (for symbols, see Fig. 5). Change in non-cyclic events tive teleconnections to which the monsoon is sensitive. For example, it has been speculated that the atmospheric con- nection between the western Asian monsoon and the ther- mohaline circulation (THC) in the North Atlantic decreased in intensity from the Lower to the Upper Holocene (Morrill et al., 2003). This might explain a reduced correlation be- tween trends in millenial and non-cyclic modes in the two climate sub-systems observed in our study. 5 Possible mechanisms for variability changes In face of the fragmented understanding of the mechanisms Fig. 7. Negative and positive Mid-Holocene change in non-cyclic producing climate shifts or quasi-cyclic fluctuations during . frequency (number of events per millennium). Red areas collect the Holocene, it seems premature to ask for what may have sites where non-cyclic frequency increased by more than 0.1 events caused their temporal change or their regional organization. kyr−1 more in the Upper compared to the Lower Holocene. In blue We here only briefly discuss the possible role of ocean and areas, anomaly frequency decreases by more than 0.1 events kyr−1 . atmospheric circulation, and of external forcings. The sun’s influence on Holocene climate variability has been deduced from the synchronicity of climate anomalies 1997c), in contrast to nearly all other locations around the and variations in solar activity (e.g. Bond et al., 2001c; globe. There, a temporal switch of modes is more often Hodell et al., 2001c). Our analysis includes records of cos- found than their persistence. mogenic nuclide production (10 Be and 14 C flux) as well as A second major outcome of our study is the regional uni- reconstructed sunspot number of Solanki et al. (2004b), and formity of temporal trends. Although coverage of many re- shows persistence of the 208 yr Suess cycle together with a gions is yet much below a value that allows for statistically damping of millennial modes after 6 kyr BP (Fig. 2 and yel- firm conclusions, the similar, albeit not equal, global distri- low sun in Fig. 5–6). A recent analysis of the sunspot number bution of changes in periodic (Fig. 5 as well as non-periodic power spectrum (Dima and Lohmann, 2005) identified peri- (Fig. 7) modes and the consistent clustering of adjacent sites ods of 6,500, 2,500, 950 and 550 yr. Debret et al. (2007) which, in general, comprise different proxy types, should be already questioned the hypothesis of Bond et al. (2001a) that taken as a strong indication for a regionalization of variabil- the 1500 yr cycles are due to variations in solar activity. Still, ity modes. Equal trends are even more homogeneously clus- the possibility of solar variability being amplified by oceanic tered for non-periodic climate variability. They remarkably feedbacks can not be entirely excluded (Renssen et al., 2006). differ from cyclic trends in Eurasia. Nevertheless, all modes Central in the literature discussion is the THC, which is (centennial, millennial and non-cyclic) intensified during the connected to North Atlantic deep water formation. The THC Holocene in a longitudinal zone crossing the Peruvian up- is commonly considered the primary process for the gener- welling area and North-east America. A counterexample, ation of climate fluctuations on interdecadal or centennial though, against spatial uniformity is evident through the scat- (Broecker et al., 1985) as well as millennial time scales ter of modal trends within the East Asian monsoon system. (Stocker et al., 1992; Weijer and Dijkstra, 2003). Schulz This may be due to its internal complexity and various ac- and Paul (2002), however, questioned its connection with
  • 7. Wirtz et al.: MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE REORGANIZATION 7 the prominent 1450 yr oscillation. The Iceland–Scotland (in the frequency space) at Cariaco Basin ˜3,800 years ago in- overflow water is an important component of the thermoha- dicative for tropical reorganization of the hydrological cycle. line circulation. Its record contains dominant periodicities Similar millennial-scale hydrologic variability is reported at of 1,400 and 700 years associated with THC variations over other locations (Koutavas et al., 2002; Ekdahl et al., 2005). the Holocene (Bianchi and McCave, 1999). It is conceivable Most of the transitions overstress the capabilities of con- that ocean circulation changes, like those of the Atlantic mul- current climate models, but it is useful to compare the in- tidecadal oscillations, modulate SST variability in the North duced variability with internal oscillatory modes (without ex- Atlantic basin on centennial and longer timescales. Particu- ternal trigger) which are seen in models of reduced complex- lar THC variations are detected for the Mid-Holocene in the ity (Mikolajewicz and Maier-Reimer, 1990; Weijer and Di- ocean circulation through hydrographic changes (R¨ hlemann u jkstra, 2003). Model perturbation experiments reveal eigen- et al., 2004), which were more pronounced in the early modes on millennial time scales. These modes are gen- Holocene (Kim et al., 2007). erated by the advection of buoyancy anomalies around the To understand the atmospheric circulations related to overturning loop, both in a single-hemispheric basin lead- Holocene variability, one can look for analogous patterns ing to centennial modes or throughout the global ocean re- during the instrumental period. This procedure was used to sponsible for millennial cycles. The most negative eigen- explore the physical processes producing SST patterns and values (strongest damping) was found for centennial oscilla- thereby to understand recorded Holocene SST changes (Mar- tions (Weijer and Dijkstra, 2003; Te Raa and Dijkstra, 2003). chal et al., 2002; Rimbu et al., 2004; Lorenz et al., 2006). The However, such modes could be activated if fluctuations in spatial pattern of Northern Hemisphere SST reconstructions radiative energy input are included into simulation studies for the Holocene emphasizes a North Atlantic Oscillation (Weber et al., 2004). trend towards its negative phase, a feature which can be re- produced by a coupled climate model (Lorenz and Lohmann, 2004). This trend is overlaid by 2,400 and 900 yr cycles 6 Consequences for cultural development? (Rimbu et al., 2004), consistent with other proxy data sets The evidence that climate variability was not uniformly dis- and solar variation. tributed over the globe, gains a new aspect to the dispute Other mechanisms behind temporally changing modes in- of whether or how Holocene climate affected the develop- clude (1) high frequency “noise” (2) low frequency orbital ment of human societies. We propose that frequency of cli- forcing, and (3) particular events. The Pacific decadal oscil- mate changes rather than average characteristics made an ef- lation and the El Ni˜ o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) show n fective difference between inhabited world regions. In par- long-term enhancement (Moy et al., 2002; Rimbu et al., ticular cultures situated in the Pan-American corridor have 2004). The origin of high frequency fluctuations is contro- seen a significant rise in event frequency by about two ad- versially discussed but a combination of nonlinear oceano- ditional disruptions more per millenium after 6 kyr BP. It is graphic interactions in the tropical Pacific and orbital forcing well imaginable that increased climate variability meant an well fits into model-based and instrumental evidence (Cle- elevated stress for early American societies. Repeated cul- ment et al., 1999; Loubere et al., 2003). These fluctuations tural discontinuities go well beyond the effects of singular may have activated multicentennial modes (Simmonds and events. In western Asia, like in many other world regions, Walland, 1998). Phase transitions in climate sub-systems the probability of climatic shifts (also visible as centennial could also be triggered by a slow change in insolation. Given modes) declined over the Holocene. Ancient civilizations in the wider distribution of millennial modes after the cessa- the Near East or later in southern Europe were challenged by tion of oscillations in solar activity at 6 kyr BP, we suggest abrupt climatic changes and resulting subsistence crises with that the Mid-Holocene reversal of insolation change differ- much lower frequency. In his Pullitzer price winning work, ently affected regional subsystems. As a result, oceanic or J. Diamond related the lagged development between Old and atmospheric teleconnections between subsystems could have New World before the colonization era to differences in bio- weakened or strengthened. Such shifts were possibly me- diversity determined by the geographical orientation of the diated by dislocations of convergence zones or trade winds, Americas with respect to Eurasia (Diamond, 1999). We here thereby modifying the damping and amplification forces of suggest that climate variability should be taken into consider- modes (Lohmann and Lorenz, 2007). ation in these conceptual approaches and also in quantitative Intensification of ENSO in the Mid-Holocene, with a pro- approaches to simulating the effect of climate on human pre- gressive increase in frequency to periodicities of 2 to 8.5 history (e.g., Wirtz and Lemmen, 2003). years, is believed to mark the onset of modern-day precip- itation patterns in low-latitude regions (Rodbell et al., 1999). Analysis of archives in northern Africa indicate strong re- 7 Conclusions ductions in tropical trees and Sahelian grassland cover, which allowed large-scale dust mobilization after 4,300 yr BP (Kro- Our analysis substantiates two hypotheses. First, the propen- pelin et al., 2008). Haug et al. (2001) found a large transition sity of the climate system to amplify external fluctuations
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We thank Karin Holmgren, Detlef Gronen- Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., de- born, Hans von Storch, Dennis Bray, Victor Brovkin for help- Menocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I., and Bonani, G.: ful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. Sabrina A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene Solms and Sonja Dorendorf are acknowledged for assisting with and glacial climates, Science, 278, 1257–1266, 1997b. the compilation of data and literature. C.L was supported by the Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., de- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG priority program INTER- Menocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I., and Bonani, G.: DYNAMIK) and the Dutch Agency for Environmental Assessment A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene (MNP Bilthoven). and glacial climates, pp. 1257–1266, 1997c. Bond, G., Kromer, B., Beer, J., Muscheler, R., Evans, M. 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