This document provides an overview of genetics and molecular genetics. It begins with objectives and introductions, then covers the history of genetics including Mendel's work. It describes the structural and functional characteristics of chromosomes, DNA, RNA and genes. It explains processes like DNA replication, transcription, translation and gene expression. It also discusses applied concepts like genetic engineering, polymerase chain reaction, and the use of molecular genetics in medicine and biotechnology.
3. INTRODUCTION.
īŽ Foundation for genetics
laid down by Mendelâs
work published in 1866.
īŽ Demonstrated that
characteristics do not
blend but transfer
from parents to
offspring in pairs
containing single unit.
Friday, April 30, 2021
5. STRUCTURAL & FUNCTIONAL
CHARACTEIRISTICS.
īŽ CHROMOSOMES.
īŽ Waldeyer (1888) coined
term Chromosomes for
thread like structure
present in Nucleus.
īŽ Total number 46.(23
pairs)
Friday, April 30, 2021
6. MORPHOLOGY OF
CHROMOSOMES.
īŽ Composed of 2
Chromatids connected at
centromere.
īŽ Each Chromatids consists
of 2 chromonemes.
īŽ Telomeres are terminal
end of chromosomes.
Friday, April 30, 2021
7. TYPES
īŽ Morphological types
īŽ Metacentric
īŽ Sub Metacentric
īŽ Acrocentric
īŽ Telocentric
īŽ Functional types.
īŽ Autosomes
īŽ Sex chromosomes.
īŽ Supernumerary or
redundant.
Friday, April 30, 2021
9. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF
CHROMOSOME
īŽ Mainly composed of
DNA & RNA, Basic
proteins Histones,
complex proteins,
organic phosphorus
compounds & inorganic
salts.
Friday, April 30, 2021
10. STRUCTURE OF DNA
īŽ Deoxyribonucleic
acid.
īŽ Reserve bank of genetic
information.
īŽ Polymer of 4
monomeric
deoxyribonucleotides â
dAMP,
dGMP,dCMP,dTMP
Friday, April 30, 2021
11. STRUCTURE OF DNA
īŽ Each
deoxyribonucleotide
composed of -A
nitrogen base â Purines
& Pyrimidine.(A,G,C &
T), pentose sugar &
phosphate.
īŽ Chargaffâs rule â A=T,
G=C
Friday, April 30, 2021
12. WATSON-CRICK MODEL OF
DNA
īŽ Double helix structure
with 2
polydeoxyribonucleotide
chains
īŽ Anti-parallel chains.
īŽ Dimensions â width 2
nm, each helix contains
10 pairs of nucleotide.
Friday, April 30, 2021
13. WATSON-CRICK MODEL OF
DNA
īŽ Base with hydrogen
bonds and sugar
phosphate backbone.
īŽ Conplementary chains
īŽ Genetic Information â
resides in 1 strand â
template strand (sense)
other is antisense
strand.
Friday, April 30, 2021
14. SIZE OF DNA
īŽ 23 haploid chromosomes
have 2900000 kb with
total length 990nm.
īŽ Thus cell contains 2m
DNA in 46 chromosomes.
īŽ 4.8 cm in each
chromosomes.
Friday, April 30, 2021
15. ORGANIZATION OF DNA IN
CELL
īŽ Each DNA combines with
group of 8 histone â
nucleosomes.
īŽ Nucleosomes & DNA packed
together to form â Solenoid
fiber
īŽ The Solenoid Fiber in turn coil
to form chromatin fibre.
īŽ Which is further coiled to form
Chromatin In which form DNA
is present in chromosome.
Friday, April 30, 2021
16. STRUCTURE OF RNA
īŽ Polymer of Ribonucleotide
held together by 3â5â-
Phosphodiaster bridges.
īŽ Single strand
īŽ Sugar molecule â Ribose
īŽ Base â Pyrimidine Base is
Uracil in place of
Thymidine.
īŽ Chargaffâs rule â not
obeyed.
Friday, April 30, 2021
17. TYPES OF RNA
īŽ Messenger RNA
(mRNA)
īŽ Transfer RNA (tRNA)
īŽ Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)
Friday, April 30, 2021
18. DNA REPLICATION
īŽ Process by which each
DNA gives rise to 2
copies of same.
īŽ Method â
Semiconservation
Replication.
Friday, April 30, 2021
19. DNA REPLICATION
īŽ Initiation of replication.
īŽ Formation of
replication fork &
replication eye.
īŽ Formation of RNA
primer.
īŽ DNA synthesis along the
replication fork.
Friday, April 30, 2021
20. Initiation of replication.
īŽ Site from which it starts called
â Origin of Replication.
īŽ It mostly consists of A-T base
pairs.
īŽ When sp protein (DNA
Protein) binds to site of
replication seperation of
double strand occurs
īŽ Seperated strands form bubble
at the site of seperation.
Friday, April 30, 2021
21. Formation of replication fork
& Replication eye.
īŽ Unwinding of Double
helix & forms Y shaped
Replication fork. ( if at
end) or Ķ¨ shaped
replication eye (if in
Middle)
īŽ This step controled by
enzyme â Helicase &
single strand binding
protein.(SSB)
Friday, April 30, 2021
22. ROLES
īŽ DNA Helicase
īŽ Binds to both strands
of DNA at replication
fork & move along
double helix & separate
the strands â like
Zipper.
īŽ Single strand
binding protein
(SSB)
īŽ Bind to seperated
strands of DNA & keep
them separate so called
â Helix Destabilising
Proteins.
īŽ Also provide template
for new DNA synthesis.
Friday, April 30, 2021
23. Formation of RNA primer.
īŽ Required for synthesis
of new DNA.
īŽ RNA primer
synthesized on DNA
template by RNA
polymerase.
Friday, April 30, 2021
24. DNA synthesis along the
replication fork.
īŽ Occurs on both the
strands of Y shaped
DNA.
īŽ 2 types
īŽ Continuous- in
leading strand
īŽ Discontinuous â in
lagging.
Friday, April 30, 2021
25. DNA synthesis along the
replication fork.
īŽ Continuous â DNA polymerase
III binds to single stranded
DNA & move along.
īŽ Each time it meets new base on
DNA, free nucleotide approach
strand & with correct
complemetary base attach to
base in DNA by hydrogen bond.
Friday, April 30, 2021
26. DNA synthesis along the
replication fork.
īŽ Enzyme continue to move one base at a time with new DNA
strand growing.
Friday, April 30, 2021
27. GENES
īŽ General consideration.
īŽ Genome
īŽ Human genome
īŽ Human genome project. (1990-2003)
īŽ Functional genomics.
īŽ Comparative genomics.
īŽ Constitutive & Inducible genes.
Friday, April 30, 2021
28. GENES
īŽ Functional unit of
DNA.
īŽ Genome â total
genetic information in
a cell.
Friday, April 30, 2021
29. GENES
īŽ Human genome â All the
genetic information present in
a single set of 23
chromosomes.
īŽ Functional genomic â
understanding function of
genes & other parts of genome.
Friday, April 30, 2021
30. GENES ( ContinueâĻ)
īŽ Human Genome Project(1990-2003) â
īŽ Identified approx all 30000 genes in human DNA.
īŽ Determined sequence of 3 billion chemical base pairs.
īŽ Comparative genomics â analysis & comparision of
Genome from different species.
Friday, April 30, 2021
32. GENES ( ContinueâĻ)
īŽ Constitutive genes.
īŽ Product of these genes
required all the time
in cell.
īŽ So expressed in all
cells at constant rate.
īŽ Inducible Genes.
īŽ Conc of proteins by these
genes are regulated by
various signals.
īŽ Altered by Inducer or
Repressor.
Friday, April 30, 2021
33. GENE EXPRESSION: CENTRAL
DOGMA
īŽ Expression of genetic material occurs through
production of proteins.
īŽ Involves â Transcription (genetic information in DNA
transferred to RNA intermediate)& translation (
synthesis of new proteins with this information)
Friday, April 30, 2021
34. GENE EXPRESSION: CENTRAL
DOGMA
īŽ This unidirectional flow of information â Central
Dogma of molecular biology given by F.H.C. Crick in
1958.
Friday, April 30, 2021
35. TRANSCRIPTION.
īŽ Process in which RNA(m,t,& r)
is synthesized from DNA.
īŽ Only for selected region of DNA.
īŽ Strand of DNA that directs
synthesis of mRNA via
complementary base pairs â
template or coding or sense
strand.
Friday, April 30, 2021
37. TRANSCRIPTION.
īŽ Promotor sites â RNA
polymerase binds to
promotor site â sequence
of codes on DNA â
Hogness Box/TATA Box.
īŽ Other site CAAT site
īŽ These helps RNA
polymerase to recognize
DNA sequence.
Friday, April 30, 2021
39. TRANSLATION
īŽ Biosynthesis of proteins.
īŽ Genetic code.
īŽ Characteristics of genetic code.
īŽ Process of protein biosynthesis.
īŽ Activation of amino acids.
īŽ Translation proper.
īŽ Post-translational modification.
Friday, April 30, 2021
40. BIOSYNTHESIS OF PROTEINS.
īŽ Process by which genetic message carried by
mRNA from DNA is converted to polypeptide
chain having specific sequence of amino
acids â Genetic Code.
Friday, April 30, 2021
41. GENETIC CODE.
īŽ Information coded in mRNA is
decoded into polypeptide
chain
īŽ Dr Hargobind Khurana
shared nobel prize with
Nirenberg & Holly for
discovering.
Friday, April 30, 2021
42. GENETIC CODE.
īŽ Formed by 3 nucleotide base sequence
īŽ Codons are made up of 4 nucleotide base
(A,G,C & U)
Friday, April 30, 2021
43. GENETIC CODE.
īŽ 64 different combinations
are formed, out of which
61 for 20 amino acids & 3
are termination codons
(UAA,UAG & UGA)
īŽ AUG & GUG are initiating
codons.
Friday, April 30, 2021
44. CHARACTERISTICS OF
GENETIC CODE.
īŽ Universality â same codon for same amino
acid
īŽ Specificity- particular codon for amino acid
īŽ Non-overlapping
īŽ Degenerate â 1 amino acid coded by more
than 1 codons.
Friday, April 30, 2021
45. PROCESS OF PROTEIN
BIOSYNTHESIS.
īŽ Activation of amino acids.
īŽ Translation proper.
īŽ Post-translational modification.
Friday, April 30, 2021
46. ACTIVATION OF AMINO ACIDS.
īŽ Amino acids react with
ATP to form enzyme-
AMP-amino acid
complex.
īŽ This react with specific
tRNA & amino acid is
transferred to 3â end of
tRNA to form aminoacyl
tRNA.
Friday, April 30, 2021
47. TRANSLATION PROPER.
īŽ Initiation â form
initiation complex
īŽ Elongation â more
addition of amino acid to
carboxyl end elongate
polypeptide chain by
Ribosomes.
īŽ Termination â stoppage
evolked by termination
codon.
Friday, April 30, 2021
49. REGULATION OF GENE
EXPRESSION.
īŽ Regulation of gene expression n
prokaryotes.
īŽ Inducible operon system â is that regulated
genetic material which remains switched off
normally but becomes operational by Inducer.
īŽ Catabolic pathway.
īŽ Repressible operon system - is that regulated
genetic material which remains switched on
normally.
īŽ Anabolic Pathway.
Friday, April 30, 2021
50. REGULATION OF GENE
EXPRESSION IN EUKARYOTES.
īŽ Gene amplification.
īŽ Gene Rearrangement.
īŽ Regulation of gene expression through
transcription factors..
īŽ Regulation of gene through mRNA.
Friday, April 30, 2021
51. Gene Amplification.
īŽ Expression of gene increased several folds
īŽ E.g development of drug resistance by
malignant cells to anticancer drugs
Friday, April 30, 2021
53. Regulation of Gene expression
through Transcription factors..
īŽ Transcription factors are products of other
genes so mediate transregulation by binding
to specific DNA segments.
Friday, April 30, 2021
54. Regulation of Gene through
mRNA.
īŽ Gene expression is
regulated by
regulation of
synthesis, transport,
processing and
stability of mRNA.
Friday, April 30, 2021
57. GENETIC ENGINEERING
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY.
īŽ STAGES
īŽ 1. Generation of copy of
gene required.
īŽ Joining the gene to a
vector or carrier
molecule.
īŽ Introduction of vector
DNA into the host cell to
produce chimeric DNA.
īŽ Cloning of chimeric DNA.
Friday, April 30, 2021
58. APPLICATION OF GENETIC
ENGINEERING
īŽ Production of proteins of
hormones
īŽ Molecular analysis of
disease
īŽ Laboratory diagnostic
applications
īŽ Gene therapy
īŽ Prenatal diagnosis of
genetic diseases.
īŽ Transgenesis.
īŽ Application in forensic
medicine
īŽ Industrial applications
īŽ Agricultural
applications
īŽ Evolution.
Friday, April 30, 2021
59. POLYMERASE CHAIN
REACTION.
īŽ Polymerase chain
reaction is a sensitive,
selective & extremely
rapid method of
amplifying a target
sequence of DNA.
īŽ Technique of PCR
īŽ Application of PCR.
Friday, April 30, 2021
60. Technique of PCR
īŽ Denaturation of DNA.
īŽ Annealing with 2 primers.
īŽ DNA amplification by
synthesis of new DNA
strand in the presence of
enzyme DNA polymerase
& substrate
deoxyribonucleotide
triphosphate.
Friday, April 30, 2021
61. Application of PCR.
īŽ Rapid diagnosis of AIDS.
īŽ DNA fingerprinting in kinship analysis &
identification of crime suspect.
īŽ Prenatal diagnosis of genetic disease.
īŽ Study of evolution from DNA of archeological
samples
īŽ Sex identification.
Friday, April 30, 2021
62. BLOTTING TECHNIQUES.
īŽ Analytical techniques
used for identification
of special DNA, RNA or a
protein.
īŽ Southern blotting
īŽ Northen blotting
īŽ Western blotting.
Friday, April 30, 2021
63. SOUTHERN BLOTTING
īŽ It is the name after the
scientist who identified
it.
īŽ Applications
īŽ DNA finger printing.
īŽ Detection of mutant gene
causing cystic fibrosis.
Friday, April 30, 2021
64. NORTHEN BLOTTING
īŽ Similar to southern
blotting except that it is
for RNA instead of DNA.
īŽ Application
īŽ Analysis of expression of
gene in a particular
tissue.
Friday, April 30, 2021
65. WESTERN BLOTTING.
īŽ Technique for
identification of specific
protein.
īŽ Application
īŽ Confirmatory test for
HIV.
īŽ With positive ELISA test
positive western blot is
99.9% accurate in
detecting HIV infection.
Friday, April 30, 2021
68. Some important terms
īŽ Transformation â introduction of any DNA molecule into any
living cell.
īŽ Transfection â introduction of purified DNA molecule into
cultured cell.
īŽ Transduction â transfer of genetic material or DNA from one
cell to other with the help of virus.
Friday, April 30, 2021
69. Some important terms
īŽ Microinjection â introducing new DNA into cell by injecting it
directly into nucleus.
īŽ Biolistics â introducing DNA into cell that involves
bombardments with high velocity microprojectiles located
with DNA.
Friday, April 30, 2021
71. Gene cloning
īŽ Refers to the process of transfer
of a DNA fragment of interest
from one organism to a self-
replicating genetic element
(cloning vector) such as
bacterial plasmid
īŽ and subsequent propagation of
the recombinant DNA molecule
in the host organism
Friday, April 30, 2021
72. Applications of gene cloning, i.e.
recombinant DNA technology
īŽ It include:
īŽ Gene therapy,
īŽ Gene engineering of organisms and
īŽ Sequencing genomes.
Friday, April 30, 2021
73. Reproductive Cloning.
īŽ Technology used to
generate an animal
that has same nuclear
DNA as another
currently or
previously existing
animal.
Friday, April 30, 2021
74. Reproductive Cloning.
īŽ In this technique genetic material is transferred
from the nucleus of a donor adult cell to an egg
whose nucleus, and thus its genetic material,has
been removed.
Friday, April 30, 2021
75. Reproductive Cloning.
īŽ A sheep (Dolly) was created
by somatic cell nuclear
transfer process by the
research team at the Roslin
Institute in Edinburgh
(Scotland) in Feb 1997.
Friday, April 30, 2021
76. Applications.
īŽ In 2001, the first clone of an endangered animal, a
wild ox called a gaur was born. The young gaur
died from an infection about 48 h after its birth.
īŽ In Italy (2001) a successful cloning of a healthy
baby mouflon, an endangered wild sheep was
reported.
īŽ The cloned mouflon is living at a wild centre in
Sardinia.
Friday, April 30, 2021
77. Embryo cloning.(Therapeutic
cloning)
īŽ Refers to the production
of human embryos for
use in research.
īŽ Aimed at harvesting
stem cells that can be
used to study human
development and to treat
diseases rather than to
create a cloned human
being.
Friday, April 30, 2021
78. Embryo cloning.(Therapeutic
cloning)
īŽ Stem cells are extracted from the egg at the
blastocysts stage of development and can be
used to generate virtually any type of
specialized cells in the human body.
Friday, April 30, 2021
79. Embryo cloning.(Therapeutic
cloning)
īŽ First human embryo for the purpose of
therapeutic research was cloned in Nov,
2001 by the scientists from âAdvanced Cell
Technologies (ACT), a biotech company in
Massachusetts.
Friday, April 30, 2021
80. Tissue culture.
īŽ Certain cells when placed in a
suitable medium can be
cultured indefinitely.
īŽ Allows a study of the action of
such chemicals as hormones,
drugs, antibiotics, cosmetics
and pharmaceutical products to
be made on cells.
Friday, April 30, 2021
81. APOPTOSIS.
īŽ Programmed cell death,
occurs under genetic
control.
īŽ Also called cell suicide.
Friday, April 30, 2021
82. Apoptosis for proper
development of tissue.
īŽ In central nervous system -- The remodelling that
occurs during development and synapse formation.
īŽ During formation of the fingers and toes of the
fetus, the apoptosis plays an important role of removing
the web tissue between the finger and toes.
Friday, April 30, 2021
83. Apoptosis for proper
development of tissue.
īŽ During sexual development in fetal life the
apoptosis is responsible for regression of duct systems.
Friday, April 30, 2021
84. Apoptosis for normal
functioning of adult tissues
īŽ Cyclic breakdown of endometrium that
leads to start of menstruation is caused by
apoptosis.
īŽ Epithelial cells that lose their connection to
the basal lamina and surrounding cells
undergo apoptosis.
īŽ Enterocytes sloughed off the tips of intestinal
villi undergo apoptosis.
Friday, April 30, 2021
85. Apoptosis to destroy the cells that
represent a threat to integrity of the
organism.
īŽ Apoptosis of the cells infected with virus.
īŽ Apoptosis of the cells of the immune system to
prevent them from attacking body
constituents.
īŽ Apoptosis of the cells with DNA damage.
īŽ Apoptosis of the cancer cells.
Friday, April 30, 2021
86. MECHNISM OF APOPTOSIS.
īŽ The final common pathway. - activation of
a group of cysteine proteases called caspases
īŽ which exist in cells as inactive proenzymes
īŽ Triggering stimuli
īŽ Internal stimuli
īŽ Apoptosisâs inducing factor
īŽ External stimuli.
Friday, April 30, 2021
87. MOLECULAR GENETICS &
MEDICINE.
īŽ Mutations & genetic human disease
īŽ Detecting human genetic variations
(genetic screening)
īŽ Genetics & cancer
īŽ Gene therapy.
Friday, April 30, 2021
88. MUTATIONS & GENETIC
HUMAN DISEASE
īŽ Mutations
īŽ Point mutations
īŽ Frame shift mutations.
īŽ Genetic human
diseases.
Friday, April 30, 2021
89. DETECTING HUMAN GENETIC
VARIATIONS (GENETIC SCREENING)
īŽ Field of genetic screening.
īŽ Prenatal diagnosis-
īŽ Chorionic villus sampling,
īŽ Amniocentesis and
īŽ Pre-implantation diagnosis.
Friday, April 30, 2021
90. DETECTING HUMAN GENETIC
VARIATIONS (GENETIC SCREENING)
īŽ Carrier diagnosis â
īŽ Identification of people who carry a particular genetic
disease, usually with no visible symptom or harm to
themselves.
īŽ Examples -- Sickle cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis and
phenylketonuria.
īŽ Predictive diagnosis.
īŽ Prediction of a future disease from which one is likely to suffer.
īŽ Example -- 'genetic time bomb' is Huntington's chorea where the
onset of disease occurs in middle age.
Friday, April 30, 2021
91. GENETICS & CANCER
īŽ Points favoring genetic basis for cancer â
īŽ Hereditary predisposition is noted in some cancers
like colon cancer and retinoblastoma.
īŽ Chromosomal abnormalities are noted in many
forms of cancers like Burkitt's lymphoma and acute
myeloid leukaemia.
Friday, April 30, 2021
92. GENETICS & CANCER
īŽ Defective DNA repair mechanisms have been
associated with occurrence of cancers.
īŽ Genetic damages (mutagenesis) by the action of
various agents like ionizing radiations, UV rays
are associated with occurrence of cancer.
Friday, April 30, 2021
93. GENES & MOLECULAR FACTORS INVOLVED
IN PATHOGENESIS OF CANCER.
īŽ Oncogenes - genes are derived by somatic
mutations from the closely related proto-
oncogenes
īŽ Tumor suppressor genes
īŽ Mutator genes
īŽ Telomeres in cancer
Friday, April 30, 2021
94. Genetic changes converting proto-
oncogenes into oncogenes
īŽ Missense mutation, i.e. change in the amino acid
sequence of proto-oncogene protein converts it into
oncogene.
īŽ Gene amplification, e.g. Myc genes have been amplified
in human leukaemia, breast, stomach, lung and colon cancer.
Friday, April 30, 2021
95. Genetic changes converting proto-
oncogenes into oncogenes
īŽ Chromosomal translocations, e.g. in Burkittâs
lymphoma a region of chromosome 8 is translocated to
either chromosome 2, 14 or 22. The breakpoint in
chromosome 8 causes the overexpression of c-myc gene.
īŽ Retroviral integration, e.g. in avian lymphomas the
integration of the avian leucosis virus can enhance the
transcription of the c-myc gene.
Friday, April 30, 2021
96. GENE THERAPY.
īŽ Methods that aim to
cure an inherited
disease by providing the
patient with a correct
copy of the defective
gene
Friday, April 30, 2021
98. Basic Approaches
īŽ Germ line therapy
īŽ Somatic cell therapy
īŽ Steps - involved in this therapy are:
īŽ Isolation of the cells with the gene defect from a patient,
īŽ Growing the isolated cells in culture,
īŽ Transfecting the isolated cell with a remedial gene
construct,
īŽ Selecting, growing and testing the transfecting cells and
īŽ Either transplanting or transfusing the transfecting cells
back into the patients.
Friday, April 30, 2021