Glycosides: Organic Compounds Found in Many Plants

Organic natural compounds present in a lot of plants and
some animals, these compounds upon hydrolysis give one
or more sugars (glycone) moieties and non sugar
(aglycone) moietyd
Glycoside=sugar group+ nonsugar group
(glycone) (aglycone or genin)
Glycone and aglycone are linked by glycosidic linkage
defination

Glycosidic linkage is formed between –
OH group of sugar and –H group of non
sugar moieties OR other sugar with loss
of water molecule glycoside bond
glycoside=glycone{---o---}aglycon

Sugar in glycosides is mostly beta-D glucose but other
sugars like galactose, mannose, rhamnose, digitoxose can
present.
Glycosides can be alpha or beta but plants contains only
beta glycosides
therapeutic effect of glycosides is only due to aglycon part
only and suger moiety facilitate absorption of glycoside,
transportation of aglycone to site of action .
so glycosides are hydrolysed to give aglycon part for action

Glycosides have therapeutic
effect in human and animals as
they are used in traditional and
modern medicines as cardio
tonic, purgative, analgesic, anti-
rheumatic, demulcent ,and many
other uses.

Classification
1-classification based on type of aglycone in
glycoside
Anthraquinone or anthracene glycoside
Sterols or cardiac glycoside
Saponin glycoside
Cyanogenic glycoside
Isothiocynate glycoside
Coumarins and furanocoumarins
Aldehyde glycoside
phenol glycoside
Steroidal
Miscellaneous glycosides

2-classification based on type of sugar (glycone) part
glucose- glucoside
Rhamnose –rhamnoside
Digitoxose-digitoxoside
Glucose and rhamnose-glucorhamnoside
Rhamnose and glucose-rhamnoglucoside

3-classification based on type of linkage between glycone
and aglycone
Linkage between –OH group of glycone and –H group of RADICALS
LIKE –CH,-OH,-SH,-NH of aglycone. glycoside is named by perfix like
C-glycoside,-sugar linked to carbon atom of aglycone
N-glycoside,- sugar linked to nitrogen atom of aglycone
O-glycoside,- sugar linked to oxygen atom of aglycone
S- glycoside- sugar linked to sulfur atom of aglycone
4-classification based on there use
Cathartics, cardio tonics, analgesics, anti-rheumatics, anti-
ulcer etc

Physical & chemical properties
Colorless, solid, amorphous, nonvolatile
(flavonoid- yellow, anthraquinone-red or
orange.)
Give positive reaction with Molisch's and
Fehling's solution test (after hydrolysis).
They are water soluble compounds, insoluble
in organic solvents
Most of them have bitter taste
(except: populin, glycyrrhizin, stevioside)

Odorless except saponin
(glycyrrhizin).
 when a glycosides has a lot of sugars
its solubility in water decrease.
Glycosides hydrolyzed by using
mineral acids and temperature or by
using enzymes

General extraction method of glycosides
Sta-otto method
The drug containing glycoside is finely powdered
and subjected to successive extraction in a soxhlet
apparatus with alcohol or suitable solvent.
 first take drug containing glycoside, finely
powdered that, and it is extracted with alcohol or
water by using soxhlet apparatus.
 After extraction, collect the extract and treat with
lead acetate to precipitate tannins

after that filter it and to the filtrate pass H2S
gas, to precipitated excess of lead acetate and
convert it to ppt of lead sulphide as this is toxic.
 Now the extract again filter.
The filtrate is subjected to fractional
crystallization, distillation or chromatography
gives pure component
And molecular structure of component is
determined by the spectrophotometer, Ultra
Red assays, Infra red , NMR and mass
spectroscopy etc.

Saponins glycosides
They contain aglycon part sapogenin.
harmful safogenins are called sapotoxins.
This aglycone part have foaming action when shaked with
water and yields colloidal solution.
They are considerd as haemotoxic because they causes
haemolysis of erythrocytes, hence some of them used as
fish poisons
Saponins are categorized in to two groups
1-steroidal saponins(tetracyclic triterpenoid saponins)
2-pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins

Chemical tests for saponin glycosides
Haemolysis test-a drop of blood on slide was mixed
with few drops of aq. Saponin solution,RBCs becomes
ruptured in presence of saponins
Foam test- to 1gm of drug add 10-20 ml of water,
shake for few min, formation of froth which persist for
60-120 seconds

Liquorice roots
Synonyms
Glycyrrhiza, mulethi, yasti, marathi- jestha madhu
Biological source-
It consist dried ,unpeeled roots and stolons of Glycyrrhiza
glabra linn
Family –leguminosae
It should contain not less than 3% of glycyrrhinic acid.

Geographical source
Commercially cultivated in Spain, Sicily and England
Varieties of glycyrrhiza glabra
G.Glabra var. typica ( spanish liquorice)
G.Glabra var. glandulifera (russian liquorice)
G.Glabra var. violacea ( persian liquorice)

Cultivation and collection
Propogation of plant is done by using pieces of stolons.
each piece should have 2-3 buds of aerial shoot.
Plant grow well in deep sandy soil with manures or fertilizers.
pieces of stolon planted in march at 2*3 distance.
Crop is kept free from weeds.
Roots harvested after 3-5 years of planting,they are obtained from
plants by dugging befor fruiting.
Drug is washed with water.
Large pices are cut in small one and dried under sun and then in shade

Macroscopic charecters
Colour- unpeeled drug yellowish brown or dark
brown externally and yellowish internally
Odour- faint and characteristic
Taste- sweet
size- length 20 to 50 cm, diameter 2cm
Shape- unpeeled pieces are straight
Fracture- fibrous in bark and splintery ( small, thin,
sharp piece of wood) in wood
Extra feature- unpeeled pieces show presence of
small buds and longitudinal wrinkles

Cork cells- polyhedral tubular brownish colour
thick, lignified, partially lignified fibers in phloem
and xylem
Starch and cal oxalate crystals present in
parenchyma
Stolon contains pith while root do not contain pith
Pith, or medulla, is a tissue in the stems of vascular
plants. Pith is composed of soft, spongy parenchyma
cells, which store and transport nutrients throughout
the plant

Chemical constituents
Main constituent is glycyrrhizin( glycyrrhizic acid) glycoside
on hydrolysis it yields glycyrrhetinic acid(triterpenoide)
other constituents are sucrose, glycyramarin(bitter principle), resins,
fat, asparagin
it contain flavonoids like liquiritin and isoliquiritin

Chemical test
Thick section of drug or powder+ 80% sulphuric acid=yellow
colour

Uses
Expectorent,
demulcent(agent that forms a soothing film over a
mucous membrane, relieving minor pain and
inflammation) ,
falvouring agent,
anti- inflammatory,
rheumatide arthritis,
due to flavonoid content with antigastric ulcer effect
it is used in peptic ulcer, antispasmodic
it is ingredient of liquorice compound powder which
is potentiate the effect of senna

Adulterants and substitutes
Manchurian liquorice ( glycyrrhiza
uralensis), it is free from sugar but contains
glycyrrhizin- pale chocklet brown colour
Russian liquorice( G glabra var
glandulifera), it have purplish colour

BRAHMI
Synonym- Bacopa , Hindi: ब्राह्मी
B S-it consist of fresh leaves and stems of plant
Bacopa moniera linn
family -Scrophulariaceae
It should contain not less than 2.5% of bacoside A on
dried basis

Geographical source-
It found throught india in wet , damp place
native to the wetlands of southern India,
Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and North and
South America
herb used in Ayurveda, where it is also known
as "Brahmi," after Brahmā, the creator God of
the Hindu pantheon.

It can be easily grown in damp areas,
propagated by seed as well as vegetatively using
runners.
Rainy season is an appropriate time for planting of
this crop.
The whole herb is generally collected after the
rainy season in the month of October-November.

Macroscopic charecterstics
Colour- green
Tast- bitter
Size- leaves 2 cm
Shape -leaves are sessile(leaves lack a petiole and so are
attached directly to the stem) and there lower surface is
dotted, flower are bluish white in colour and 1 cm size

T.S. of Bacopa monnieri stem
(a) Vascular bundle and centrally large pith, (b) Y linked parenchyma cells, (c)
Prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate, (d) Xylem phloem

Saponin- bacoside A and B
alkaloids-brahmine, herpestine,
other- betulic acid, stigmasterol,monnierin,hersaponin

USES
nervine tonic,
asthama,
epilepsy,
insanity,
Diuretic
anticancer

DIOSCOREA
SYNONYM- yam, rheumatism root
B.S-
it consist of dried tubers of plant Dioscorea
deltoidea,D.composita, and other species of
dioscorea.
family- dioscoreaceae

Geographical source-
North western Himalaya,Punjab to Nepal,
In China up to altitude of 1000 to 3000
meter.
it is cultivated in Jammu and Kashmir

-Cultivated from tubers with crown of about 70-80 gm in weight.
-first sown in nursery bed.
-after 30-40 day tubers sprout.(germinate)
-after 2-3 month of growth transplanted in field at distance of 30*60cm.
-they required support for optimum growth as veins are weak and tender.
-Manures and organic fertilizers are supplied.
-Irrigation done every 10 days
-fresh tubers are harvested by deep ploughing after two years of crop.
-Dried and they loose 50% weight after drying.

Colour- slightly brown
Odour- odourless
Taste-bitter
Extra features- it is climber, rhizomes are soft,
horizontally arranged and very close to soil, drug
covered with scattered roots.

Microscopic characteristics-
Epidermis is absent in TS.
cork consist few layers.
and few layers of cortical parenchyma tissue.
stele
( primary vascular tissue in the stem or root of a vascular p
lant, consisting of the xylem and
Phloem together with supporting tissues, such as pith.) is
major part of drug consisting collateral fibro-vasculer
bundles.
endodermis and pericyle are indistinguishable.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
75% non edible starch as it is bitter.
chief constituent is diosgenin {sugar-free (aglycone) . It is
hydrolytic product of saponin-dioscin}
other Glycosides-
smilagenin,
epismilagenin,
yammogenin

Uses
Diosgenin is steroidal sapogenin
so used as precursor for synthesis of
corticosteroids,
sex hormones,
oral contraceptive.
diosgenin used in treatment of rheumatoid
arthritis

Isolation of diosgenin
dried tubers are powdered
and dioscin is hydrolysed by mineral acids
to obtain diosgenin,
then it is extracted by non polar solvents
like benzene or solvent ether

Allied species
Dioscorea flouribunda- india,
central america -D.villosa-
USA-D,deltoidea wall var. sikkimensis prain
Himalayas, Nepal, Sikkim
Cheilocostus speciosus or crêpe ginger is alternate source
of diosgenin (1.5%)

Ginseng
SYNONYM- ninjin, panax,pannag
B.S-
it consist of dried roots of various species of panax like
p.Ginseng(korean ginseng),
p.Japonica(japanese ginseng),
p.Notoginseng(chinese ginseng),
p.Quinquefolium(american ginseng).
family- Araliaceae
The English word ginseng derives from
the Chinese term rénshēn . Rén means "Person" and shēn means "plant
root"; this refers to the root's characteristic forked shape, which
resembles the legs of a person.

Colour-yellowish brown,white or red depending on type

It contains mixture of saponin
glycosides(triterpenoid group)
Ginsenosides,-aglycon is dammarol
panaxosides,-aglycon is oleanolic
acid,panaxadiol,panaxatriol
chikusetsusaponin

Uses
Immunomodulatory ( it increase natural
resistance and enhance power to overcome illness
or exhaustion).
Tonic and stimulant
aphrodisiac.
In old days it was used to cure giddiness and
prolong life of elderly and diabetic person.
externally used in cosmetics

Substitutes
codonopsis tangshen used by poor
people in china as substitute for costly
ginseng.
unusual climber, bearing subtle,
yellowish-green, bell-shaped flowers,
with purple markings on the inside; the
root is used in China to make a tonic.

Synonyms- smilax medica, radix sarsa,
jamaica sarsaparilla
B.S-
It consist of dried roots of Smilax Ornata
Hooker,
family-Liliaceae

Characteristica-
Word sarsaparilla derived from
-spanish sana means bramble(any rough, (usually wild) twisted spiny
shrub )
-and parilla means vine(climbing or trailing woody-stemmed plant) in
allusion to the thorny stems of plant.
-It is large perennial (plant that lives for more than two years )climber
--in market drug is found as bundles consists of numerous long slender
roots of 3 mm thickness.

- shrunken and furrowed longitudinally with
few root lets.
Drug is tough and flexible difficult to break
-colur - dark red to brown
-Odour- odurless
-Taste- slight bitter
-When chewed it tinges saliva with slightly
bitter and mucilaginous followed by acrid
taste.

Saponin glycoside
hydrolysis
sarsaponin ------------ sarsapogenin + dextrose
It also contains
starch,
sarsapic acid,
fatty acids- palmitic ,stearic, behenic, oleic, linolic acids

Uses
Used in
chronic skin diseases,
rheumatism,
passive dropsy, (old term for the swelling of soft tissues due to the
accumulation of excess water.)
syphilis.(sexually transmitted infection caused by the spirochete bacterium
Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum. )

Other species
Smilax Officinalis- native jamaican sarsaparilla
Very long roots with thick bark, grey or brown colour,
odourless, mucilaginous taste
Marketed product-
it is Ingredient of purodil capsule and syrup( amil
pharma)

B S-
It consist of dried berries of
Solanum Khasianum C B
Clarke
family
Solanaceae

Geographical source
in india found at varoius altitudes from costal region
to up to 2000m.
in hilly regions of india
central india and china.
It is commercialy cultivated in maharashtra ,Akola-
Jalgoan tract

cultivated from seeds either through nursery bed or by direct
broadcasting
-seeds sown in nursery bed
-after sufficient growth of seedling they are transplanted in to open
fields. At 50*50 cm
-well drained soil and sunny atmosphere are preferred.
-fertilizers are given
-after six month plant are harvested for collection of berries.
-drug is dried in shade to reduce moisture content

Characterstics
berries are yellowish to greenish in colour.
Globose (globular form ) and 2.5 cm in
diameter
seeds are compressed smooth and brown in
colour

it contains steroidal glycoside solasodine (3%)
greenish yellow fixed oil
Seeds contains alkaloid
Solasodine can be converted to a group of compounds like
testosterone and methyl testosterone and corticosteroids like
predinisolone and hydrocortisone
solasodine

Uses
solasodine is precursor for steroidal synthesis
Solasodine is first converted to 16-dehydro-
pregnenolone (16 DPA) , which is then converted to a
group of compounds like testosterone and methyl
testosterone and corticosteroids like predinisolone
and hydrocortisone.
These steroidal compounds have anti-inflammatory,
anabolic and antifertility properties, sex hormones,
oral contraceptives properties.

Cardioactive sterols or cardiac glycosides
Aglycone part of cardiac glycosides is steroidal moiety, i.e 5
memberd or 6 memberd lactone rings.
Two classes exist in nature.cardenolides and bufadienolides.
Those contain five memberd lactone ring are called
cardenolides and six memberd lacton containing compounds
called bufadienolides.
cardenolide bufadienolide

Term bufadienolide is derived from
bufalin as it is obtained from skin of
toads( toad poisone)
In nature cardenolide accoure more
than bufadienolide.
Congestive heart failure is treated by
cardiac glycosides.thy act as
cardiotonic by increasing force of
systolic contraction

CHEMICAL TESTS FOR CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES
Keller-kiliani test
Alcoholic extract of drug + equal volume water and
0.5 ml strong lead acetate solution. Shake and
filtered.filtrat extracted with equal volume of
chloroform. Chloroform extract evaporated to dryness
and dried residue dissolved in 3 ml glacial acetic acid+
few drop of ferric chloride solution. this solution
transferred to test tube containing con. Sulphuric
acid. Reddish brown layer formed wich turnes bluish
green after standing due to presence of digitoxose.

Legal test
Alcoholic extract of drug + equal volume water and 0.5 ml strong lead
acetate solution. Shake and filtered. Filtrat extracted with equal volume
of chloroform. Chloroform extract evaporated to dryness and dried
residue was dissolved in 2 ml pyridine+ 2 ml sodium nitroprusside +
sodium hydroxide solution ( to make alkaline).pink colour due to
glycoside or aglycone moiety.

Baljet test
T.S of digitalis leaves + sodium picrate solution=
yellow to orange colour due to aglycone or glycoside
3,5- dinitro benzoic acid test
alcoholic solution of drug + few drops of
sodium hydroxide + 2% solution of 3,5
dinitrobenzoic acid= pink colour due to
cardiac glycosides

SYNONYMS
Digitalis leaves , foxglove leaves
B S
it consist dried leaves of Digitalis Purpurea
family
Scrophulariaceae
Should contain not more than 5% moisture,
dried below 60 0 C

GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE
it is cultivated in England,
Europe,
USA ,
India

CULTIVATION AND COLLECTION
It is propagated by seeds.
it requires calcarious, acidic, sandy soil for growth.
seeds are very small in size i.e 100 seeds weigh 40 to 70 mg.
seeds are mixed with fine sand and sown in nursery beds in march/april.
young seedlings are transplanted in sep/november.
crop is manured and kept free from weeds.
In first year plant bears rosette leaves and in second year sessile leaves.
Leaves collected in second year by handpicking when 2/3 rd of flowers
are fully developed.

leaves immediately dried in vacuum driers.
dried leaves containing not more than 5% moisture are
packed in airtight containers with dehydrating agents.
Presence of moisture deteriorates glycosides. If dried above
60 0 C potency lost due to chemical degradation.

MACROSCOPIC CHARECTERS
Colour- dark greyish green
odour- slight
taste- bitter
size- 10 to 40 cm long and 4 to 20 cm wide
shape- ovate- lanceolate(shape like lance head or tapering to a point at
each end) to broadly ovate( like egg)
Extra feature
Leaves are slightly pubescent on both surfaces, pinnate venation,(one
main vein extending from the base to the tip of the leaf and smaller
veins branching off the main vein.) generally leaves are broken and
crumbled.( break in small fragments)

Microscopic characters
Dorsiventral leaf.(two surfaces differing from each other in
appearance and structure,)
covering and glandular trichomes on boath surfaces.
covering trichomes are uniseriate,( arranged in single series)
3 to 4 cells long, having collapsed cells, acute apex and
warty( hard rough lump growing on) cutical.
glandular trichomes are short, unicellular stalk and bicellular
or unicellular head.
it have anomocytic stomata (irregular celled)

Starch grains are present in endodermis.
collenchyma present at upper and lower
epidermis and pericyclic ( is a cylinder of
parenchyma or sclerenchyma cells that lies just
inside the endodermis and is the outer most
part of the stele of plants.)part.

0.2 to0.45% cardenolides.
purpurea glycoside A and B,
glucogitaloxin.
Other,
odoroside H,
gitaloxin,
verodoxin,
glucoverodoxin
Saponin glycosides
digitonin,
gitonin

Hydrolysis products of purpurea glycosides
Purpurea glycoside A Purpurea glycoside B
hydrolysis hydrolysis
digitoxigenin + 3 digitoxose gitoxigenin +3 digitoxose
digitoxigenin
gitoxigenin

Uses
Congestive heart failure,( heart is unable to pump
sufficiently to maintain blood flow to meet the needs of the body)
artrial fibrillation( common type of abnormal heartbeat. The
heart rhythm is fast and irregular in this condition.),
artrial flutter, ( abnormal heart rhythm that occurs in the atria of
the heart. When it first occurs, it is usually associated with a fast heart rate
or tachycardia (beats over 100 per minute))
supraventricular tachycardia

Adulterants
Verbascum Thapsus ( mullelin leaves)- large wooly branched candelabra(large
branched candlestick or holder for several candles) trichomes.
Primula Vulgaris (comfrey leaves)-multicellular trichomes forming hook at top.
Symphytum Officinale( primrose leaves)-uniseriate covering trichomes 8 to 9 cell long.

Synonym
Oleander, lucky nut tree, trumpet flower
Hindi Name : Kaner
B S
these are dried seeds of Thevetia Peruviana.
Merrill.
Family
Apocynaceae

Colour-seeds are green to greenish black
Odour- none
taste-very bitter,produce numbness after
chewing
Shape- oblong,(elongated rectangle or oval
shape) hard

It contains three suger molecules ( triosides)
thevetin is major constituent.
theventin it is mixture of two glycosides thevetin A , and B ( trioside).
it contians L-thevetose +2 mol. D- glucose
other are monoside ( contain single suger molecule)
peruvoside, neriifolin, thevenerin, peruosidic acid
all contains L- thevetose suger

Thevetin A
Thevetin B
Thevetin A-cannogenin ( aglycone) Thevetin B-digitoxigenin(aglycone)

Uses
peruvoside used in mild cardiac insufficiency, weak
heart,
entire plant is poisonous and seeds are most
poisonous.
Seeds used as abortifacient, purgative,
rheumatism(any disease marked by inflammation and
pain in the joints, muscles, or fibrous tissue),
dropsy(edema),

SYNONYM
Scillae bulbus, white squill, europian squill
B.S
it consist of dried slices of the bulb of white
variety of Urginea Maritima linn
family Liliaceae
red squill have reddish brown outer scales

Morphological chrecters
Colour- scale have red or orange colour
Odour-less intense
Taste- mucilaginous, bitter, acrid
shape- sundried bulbs are pear shaped
size- size of man,s fist or larger
extra feature- bulb consist smooth juicy scales, closely
wrapped over one another.

Cardiac glycoside bufadienolide type.
scillaren A and B, glucoscillaren A, proscillaridin A,
Other
flavonoid, mucilage
scillaren A on enzymatic hydrolysis yield proscillaridin A and on acid hydrolysis yeild
scillarenin A
scillarenin A

Uses
stimulant,
expectorant,
diuretic ,
cardiac tonic,
Chronic bronchitis,
asthma,
substitute for digitalis in failing heart

Synonym
kombe seeds, semen strophanthi,
strophanthus seeds
B.S
it consist dried ripe seeds of Strophanthus
Kombe oliv
family
Apocynaceae

Greek strophos means twisted cord or rope, anthos means flower.
limb of corolla of flower divided in to five long tail like segments.
colour- seeds are externally light fawn(light brown) with greenish ting,
silky lustrous
odour-heavy when seeds crushed
taste- very bitter
shape- lance-ovoid flattened, obtusely edged( not pointed)
size- 7 to 20 mm length, 4mm breathy, 2mm thick

8 to 10 % cardiac glycosides known as K- strophanthin,
it is mixture of three glycosides ie.cymarin, k- strophanthin β
, k- strophanthoside, they differ in sugar part but same
aglycone part strophanthidin
Cymarin-strophanthidin+cymarose(sugar)
K-strophanthin β-strophanthidin+cymarose+ β glucose
K-strophanthoside-strophanthidin+cymarose β Glu+α glucose
kombik acid( acid saponin)

Other
mucilage,
resin,
fixed oil,
choline,

Chemical test
1 Strophanthus glycosides exhibit emerald green colour on
addition of sulphuric acid
2 Dissolve 0.1 gm strophanthin in 5 ml water + few drops of
ferric chloride solution , then 1 to 2 ml of con sulphuric acid.
It gives initial red ppt that finally turns to green in 1 to 2
hours
3 Positive baljet ,legal test, keller- kiliani test

Uses
chronic heart weakness,
its use is same like digitalis ,
diuretic

Substitutents and adulterants
adulterted with
S. hispidus,-consist k- strophanthi, colour, shape
similar to S. kombe
S.nicholsoni, -whitish seed
S.gratus,-brown colour
S. sarmentosus- brownish ting, less bitter, small size

Anthraqiunone glycosides
Anthraquinone is derivative of anthracene.( C14H10, consisting
of three fused benzene rings)
Natural anthraquinone derivative have laxative effects
These glycosides contains anthraquinone, anthrone,
anthranol, dianthranol, oxanthrone, dianthrone etc as
aglycone part.
parent molecule for all these aglycones is anthraquinone.
In reduced form anthraquinone is present as anthranol or
anthrone wich are isomeric to each other.

oxanthrone is intermediate substance from
anthraquinone to anthranol.
Bimeric form of anthrone is dianthrone.
in fresh drug these aglycones are present in
reduced form witch are biologically more
active but during drying and storage they
hydrolyzed , oxidized.
Sugar part can be glucose, rhamnose,
arabinose, primeverose etc.

anthraquinone
anthrone
oxanthrone

Chemical tests
1 borntrager,s test
To 1 gm of drug add 5-10 ml of dil HCl, boil on water
bath for 10 min and filter. Filtrate then extracted with
CCl4/ benzene and add equal amount of ammonia
solution to filtrate and shake. Ammonical layer
becomes pink or red due to presence of
anthraquinone.

2 .modified borntrager,s test
to 1 gm drug add 5 ml dil HCl + 5 ml
ferric chloride( 5%w/v). Boil on water
bath for 10 min, cool , filter. Filtrate then
extracted with CCl4/benzene and add
equal volume of ammonia solution. Pink
or red colour forms due to
anthraquinone . This test used for C- type
anthraquinone glycoside

Senna
Synonym
senai- ki- patti, tinnevelley senna, cassia senna
B.S
It consist of dried leaflets of Cassia Angustifolia known
as indian senna or Cassia Senna vahl
family
Leguminosae
it should contain note less than 1 % of sennoside A
and B on dried basis

GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE
inndian senna cultivated in
tinnevelley, madurai, ramnathpuram districs in
Tamilnadu
, kaddapa dist in Anthrapradesh
, Kutch in Gujarat and Rajasthan

cultivation collection and preparation
sowing is done by seed broadcasting method .
for earlier germination seed surface is triturated with sand .
seeds are sown thinly.
it required red loamy or coarse gravelly soil( high proportion of small stones).
First sowing done in feb- march.
Second sowing done in oct- november.
It required semi irrigation or light irrigation..
Once flowers are grown cutting given to flower stalk for further branching to occur.
leaves are harvested after 2-3 months of planting.

First plucking done when leaflets fully grown, second plucking after
one month of first
plucking. Last plucking done after 4-6 weeks of second.
Plant is uprooted after third plucking.
Leaflets are dried in shade for 7-10 days.
leaves are tossed( move from side to side or back and forth) to separate
pods.
Then packed in to large bundles under hydraulic pressure.
Pressing produce transverse line on Indian senna witch are absent on
Alexandrian senna leaves.

Macroscopic characteristics
colour- yellowish green
odour- slight
taste- mucilaginous, bitter and charecterstic
size- 7-8 mm width, 25-60 mm length
shape- lanceolate, apex acute with spine at
top.trichomes present on both surfaces.

it is isobilateral leaf.( divided into symmetrical halves )
trichomes present on both surfaces.
Trichome,s are unicellular, conical, thick walled warty,
slightly curved at base
.palisade tissue present on upper and lower surface,
they contain cluster crystals of cal oxalate
.
Pricyclic fibers present towards upper epidermis and
above xylem

sennoside A , sennoside B . they have rhein( cassic acid) dianthrone as
aglycone.
other anthraquinone
sennoside C,D,
rhein ,
kaempferol,
aloe- emodin,
isorhamnetin,
mucilase ,
resin,
myricyl alcohol,
salicylic acid,
crysophagic acid,
Cal. oxalate.
tinnevelley glucoside

USES
purgative
MOA-
anthraquinone glycosides absorbed first in
intestinal tract, then aglycone is separated and
excreted in colon. it causes irritation and
stimulation of colon, so movement( peristalsis)
of colon increases, peristalsis also reduce water
absorption hence soft and bulky faeces are
formed. due to resin and emodin content
griping occurs hence drug is given with
carminatives.

ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES
Dog senna (c. obovata)- shape of leaves is
obovate(ovate with the narrower end at the base.)
with tapering apex. Papillose( nipple-like structure)
cells in lower epidermis
Palthe senna- anthraquinone glycosides
absent.leaflets have long hairs and when boiled with
chloral hydrate solution crimson colour occurs.
bombay senna, mecca senna, arabian senna etc
have leaflets brownish green colour and more
elongated and narrower in shape.

Alexandrian senna
synonym
folia sennae alexandrina, egyptian senna, cassia
senna
B.S
it consist dried leaflets of Cassia Acutifolia delile
family
Leguminosa

Macroscopic and microscopic charecters
are same like indian senna.
colour is pale greyish green.
Base is more symmetrical, more
pubescent.
Chemical constituents and adulterants are
same like Indian senna

Aloes
Synonym
Aloe, Hindi-musabbar, kumari. Marathi- korphad
BS
It is dried juice of leaves of Aloe Barbadensis miller known as
curacao aloe or ALoe Perryi baker known as socotrine aloes
or Aloe Ferox miller, and hybrids of this species Aloe Africana
miller and Aloe Spicatya baker known as cape aloes
family
Liliaceae

Geographical source
it is indigenous to estern and southern Africa.
Cultivated in Caribben Island,
Europe,
India

Propagation is done from root suckers.
Root suckers planted in rows about 50 cm apart.
Plant grow in dry climate and poor grade soil.
Roots do not penetrate much in soil.
Manure is provided.
Leaves are cut first time after second year of planting and drug is obtained from
leaves for 12 years.
After 12 years plant is uprooted and new crop is taken.
during collection cut is given at base of leaves so juice located in parenchymatous cells
of pericycle exudes out.

Preparation of aloe
1 barbados or curacao aloes
it is obtained by giving cut on leaves of aloe barbadensis.
because of spines on leaves it is put in to kerosene tins immediately
after cutting .
Then kept in tilted position on V- shaped wooden troughs to drain out
juice.
juice is boil in copper pans for evaporation to obtain thick juice.
Then it is poured it to metal containers , where it hardens.

2 cape aloes
Obtained from aloe ferox and its hybrid species.
Leaves are cut transversely and kept in circular manner in basin shaped
depression lined with goat skin or canvas.
They are kept in this position for 5-6 hours till all juice exudes out and
collected in goat skin.
juice is boiled in iron kettle with continuous stirring with wooden
paddle.
Once juice is thick it is poured in to wooden cases where it solidify.

3 socotrin aloes
It is obtained from aloe perryi in east Africa.
juice is collected in goat skin and allowed to become semisolid in nature.
It is exported in past like consistency.
4 zanzibar aloes
it is verity of socotrine aloe.
Juice is placed in skin of small carnivorous animals, where it solidify.
Then packed in wooden boxes.
It is also called monkey skin aloe, although skin is not of monkey.

Description
1 curacao aloes
Odour-strong odour resembling to iodoform.
Taste is bitter.
Colour is brownish black, opaque mass.
Fracture-uneven fractured surface
2 cape aloes
colour- dark brown or greenish brown to olive brown mass.
Taste – nauseating and bitter.
Odour - sour but distinct.
Fracture - glassy

3 socotrine aloes
colour- brownish yellow, opaque mass with pasty consistency.
Taste- extremely bitter, nauseous.
Odour –unpleasant
4 zanziber aloes
colour- liver brown.
Odour- characteristic but not disagreeable.
taste bitter.
Fracture – dull, waxy, smooth, even

Microscopic charecterstics-
TS shows
outermost cuticle followed by epidermis, palisade tissue, mucilaginous
parenchyma mesophyll.
mesophyll contains vascular bundle covered with pericycle fibers layer.
Inside pericycle ,aloetic cells are located witch contains aloe gel (
viscous yellow).
Calcium oxalate crystals present in parenchyma.
leaves are sessile

Microscopic chrecters of aloe powder
It is useful for identification of powdered aloes. it is studied in lacto phenol reagent to gradually
solubilize particles so crystals can clearly seen
1 curacao aloes
fragments consist of large number of very small needle or slender prisms
2 cape aloes
transparent, brown, angular or irregular fragments.
3 socotrine aloes
fragments consist of large prisms in group or dispersed form.
4 zanzibar aloes
irregular lumps in with modular masses are embedded.

anthraquinone glycosides.
main active constituent is Aloin.
Aloin is also called as barbaloin
barbaloin is C-glycoside
Aloin

Other
isobarbaloin,
beta barbaloin,
aloe-emodin,
resin,
aloetic acid,
homonataloin,
aloesone,
saponins,
mucopolysccharides,
glucosamines,
hexuronic acid.
aloe resin contains aloesin( purgative action)

Chemical teasts
general chemical tests
1 gm aloe is powder boiled with 10 ml water, filtered. Filtrate
used for bromine test and schoenteten,s reaction.
1 bromine test- filtrate+ freshly prepared bromin solution=
pale yellow ppt of tetrabromalin
2 schoenteten,s test- filtrate+ borax shake well until borax
dissolves.few drop of this soluition added in test tube filled
with water= green fluorescence appears.

Special test
these test are to distinguish between varieties of aloe
1 nitrous acid test-
aqueous solution of aloe + sodium nitrate crystals + acetic
acid
curacao aloes-sharp pink to carmine colour
cape aloes- faint pink colour
socotrine and zanzibar aloes- very less change in colour

2-Nitric acid test-
nitric acid applied to drug or its aqueous solution
curacao aloes- deep brownish red colour
cape aloe- brownish colour changes to green
socotrine aloes- pale brownish- yellow colour
zanzibar aloes- yellowish brown colour

3 kupraloin test( klunge,s isobarbaloin test)-
Dil. aqueous solution of aloe+ drop of copper sulphat+
sodium chloride + excess 90% alcohol
Curacao aloes-wine red colour persist for 4 hours
Cape aloes- faint colour rapidly changes to yellow
Socotrine aloes-no colour
zanziber aloes- no colour

Uses
purgative.
Stronger purgative than all anthraquinon glycosides.
To prevent gripping action carminative can be given.
it is ingredient of compound tincture of benzoin(
friar,s balsam)
aloe gel is used for topical application and many
cosmetic uses.

Aloe gel-
it is obtained from inner
parenchyma cells of leaf.
Slightly viscous and clear
liquid. It should not be
contaminated with aloe juice

Adulterants and substitutes
Natal aloes-it contains natalion, homonatalion, resin,
it is weak purgative
Mocha aloes- brittle, black and glossy with strong
odour
Aloe can be adulterated with black catechu.
Alcoholic extract of aloe gives deep brown colour
while black catechu gives black colour.

Cascara
synonym
cascara sagrada, sacred bark, chittem bark
BS
it is dried bark of Rhamnus Purshiana de candolle,
family
Rhamnaceae
It is collected at least one year before use

colour- purplish brown externally and reddish brown internally
Odour- charecterstic nauseous
taste- persistently bitter
Size- 1 to 4 mm thick with varying size
shape- Brocken pieces, small flat. Occurs in squills or channels
extra feature- bark is very smooth, shows presence of scattered
lenticels, and cork. Internally shows longitudinal striations.

fresh bark contains anthranol derivatives( gripping, emetic effect).
After one year storage anthranol is oxidised to anthraquinones.
it contains four primary glycosides Cascarosides A,B,C,D.
OTHER
barbaloin,
chrysaloin,
alo-emodin,
chrysophanol,
palmidins A,B,C,

Uses
mild purgative
in small dose used as bitter stomachic
(tone the stomach, improving its
function and increasing appetite)and
tonic,
in large dose as purgative

Rhubarb
synonym
East indian rhubarb, China rhubarb, Turky rhubarb
BS
it consist of peeled dried rhizomes and roots of
Rheum Palmatum linn
family
polygonaceae

colour- externally brown, internally
deep yellow colour
taste -astringent
odour- characterstic

antharaquinones
Chrysophanol,
aloe- emodin,
emodin,
physcion,
rhein
Others
tannoids,
starch,
cal oxalate,
resins phloretin is purgative

chemical test
1 -Rhubarb powder+ ammonia= pink
colour
2 -Rhubarb powder+ 5% potassium
hydroxide solution= blood red colour

Uses
Laxative,
purgative,
stomachic ,
tonic,
demulcent,
cholagogue,
astringent,
antitumer,
antispasmodic,
antiseptic,
anticholesterolemic

Andrographis
Synonym-
Kalmegh, king of bitter, chiretta Hindi- kiryeti, marathi – kadu
kirayata
B.S
it consist of leaves or entire aerial part of Andrographis
Paniculata Nees
family
Acanthaceae

Geographical source
Southeast Asia,includes
India,
Sri Lanka,
Pakisthan, etc
Indonesia,cultivated in China, Thailand, east and
west Indies, Mauritius

It is propagated from seeds.
in India it is cultivated in rainy season ( kharif crop).
it can be cultivated in any soil containing organic matters.
planted at distance of 30 cm *15cm.
no major insect and disease infection occurs to plant.
at flowering stage after 90-120 days after cultivation ,it is cut at base
leaving 10-15 cm stem for plant regeneration.
50-60 days after first harvesting ,final harvest is performed

Macroscopic characters
colour- leaves are dark green, flowers are rose colour
Odour- odourless
Taste-intensly bitter
Size- leaves 7cm*2.5cm, flowers 1.8 cm length
Shape- leaves are lanceolate, petilolate with entire margin
and acuminate (Tapering gradually to a sharp point)apex.
Venation is unicostate (only one primary or prominent rib,
midrib) reticulate(divide in such a way as to resemble a net or network.)

bitter principles- andrographolide,( bicyclic diterpenoid lactone)
kalmeghin
andrographolide

Uses
Bitter tonic,
anthelmintic,
Febrifuge,
astringent,
antityphoid,
antibiotic,
hepatoprotective

Psoralea
Synonym-
Bavachi fruits, malaya tea, bavachi seeds
BS
It consist of dried ripe fruits and seeds of Psoralea
Corylifolia Linn
family
Leguminosa

Macroscopic characterstics
Colour- fruits are dark chocolate to black colour
Odour- no
Taste-bitter, acrid and unpleasant
Size- 3-4.5 mm long, 2-3 mm broad
Shape- ovate, oblong
Extra- pericarp attached to seeds

coumarin gycosides
Psoralen
,isopsoralen,
psoralidin,
isopsoralidin,
Psoralenol
bavachromanol
other-
fixed oil,
essential oil,
Resin

Chemical tests
1 dissolve psoralea in alcohol then add sodium
hydroxide and observe under UV light=yellow
fluorescence
2 dissolve psoralea in alcohol+ 3 times of
propylene glycol+5 times of acetic acid+40
times of water=blue fluorescence under UV
light

Uses
Aphordisiac,
antibacterial,
tonic for genital organs,
diuretic ,
stimulant,
stomachic

Ammi majus
Synonyms-
bishop,s weed, laceflower, large bullwort,
BS
these are fruits of Ammi Majus Linn
Family
Umbelliferae

Odour-slightly aromatic
taste- strongly pungent, slightly bitter
Size- fruits are 22.5mm long, 0.5-1.7mm broad
Fruit shows four prominent secondary ridges

Furanocumarins-
xanthotoxin
Imperatorin
Bergapten,
isopimpinellin

Chemical tests
1 -boil 1 gm drug with 10ml water for 1 min and
strain, add one or two drops of this decoction to 2 ml
of solution of sodium hydroxide=no rose colour (
distinction from ammi visnaga)
2-alcoholic extract of fruit gives blue fluorescence
under UV light

Uses
Furanocoumarins stimulate pigment
production in skin when exposed to
bright sunlight ,so used in skin disease
like vitiligo( depigmentation of skin)
and psoriasis(systemic disease characterized
by skin lesions including red, scaly patches,itch)
vitiligopsoriasis

Ammi visanaga
synonym- khella, pick tooth fruit
B.S
These are dried ripe fruits of Ammi
Visanaga Linn
family
Umbelliferae

Macroscopic charecteristics
Colour- fruit is greenish brown
Odour- slightly aromatic
Taste-bitter and slightly pungent
Size-2-2.5mm length,0.7-1.2 mm width,0.8-1mm thickness
Extra features-mericarp shows 5 primary ridges and 4
secondary ridges

Furanocumarin compounds
Khellin,
visnagin,
khellol,
khellol glucoside
1% volatile oil,
oil contains
samidine,
dihydrosamidine,
visnadine

Chemical test
when drug trated with strong
mineral acid shows lemon
yellow colour while ammi
majus shows dirty green brown
colour

Uses
Khellin is smooth muscle
relaxant and used as coronary
vasodilator in angina pectoris,
uterine colic,
bronchial asthma,
whooping cough

Bitter almond
synonym-
amygdala amara
BS
These are dried ripe seeds of plant Prunus Amygdalus
Batsch var amara
family
Rosaceae

Macroscopic characterstics
colour- brown
odour- odourless
taste- bitter
size- 20mm length, 125mm width,10 mm thickness
shape- flattened, oblong, ovoid shape with marking
on testa

40-50% bland fixed oil,
20% protien,
bitter glycoside -amygdalin(1-3%),
0.5% volatile oil
Amygdalin hydrolyzed to produce benzaldehyde+ hydrocyanic
acid.
Hydrocyanic acid is very poisonous hence it is not used
internally.
sweet almond do not contain amygdalin

Uses
oil is demulcent ,
In perfumary,
in preparation of bitter almond water,
sedative

Gentian
Synonym-
Gentiana, radix gentianae
B.S
It is dried partially fermented rhizome
and root of yellow gentian i.e Gentiana
Lutea
Family
Gentianaceae

colour- rhizomes are yellowish-brown
Odour-peculiar( different)
Taste- sweet taste followed by intense bitter
Fracture- short and smooth in dried drug but
tough and flexible in moist drug

Bitter glycoside -gentiopicrin(gentiopicroside)
Others-
Amarogentin, ( bitter)
amaroswerin,
gentioside,
Gentinin
Gentisin( yellow colour flavonoid)
Gentisic acid,
gentianose(trisaccharide)
Gentibiose(disaccharide)
sucrose

Chemical test
under UV light gentian extract shows light blue
fluorescence

Saffron
Synonym
Crocus,marathi-keshar, spanish saffron,
french saffrone
B.S
It is the dried stigma and styletops of
Crocus Sativum Linn.
Family
Iridaceae

Colour-reddish brown
Odour-strong,peculiar and aromatic
Taste- aromatic and bitter
Extra features-
Flattish tubular, almost thread like
stigmas

Volatile oil(1.3%),
fixed oil,
wax,
crocin( colouring compound),
crocetin( aromatic compound),
picrocrocin( bitter glycoside)
caretenoids

Uses
Fever,
Cold,
enlargement of liver,
cosmetics preparations,
spice,
aphrodisiac,
stimulant,
Tonic,
emmenagouge

Chirata
Synonym-
Indian gentian, indian balmony.
B.S
It consist of the entire herb of Swertia Chirata
Family
Gentianaceae
it contains not less than 1.3% bitter constituent

Chiritin,
gentiopicrin,
amarogentin,
ophelic acid,
gentinine,
gentiocrucine

Uses
Extramely bitter tonic,
digestive,
stimulant,
lowers fever,
Dyspepsia(indigestion)
cholagogue

Picrorhiza
Synonym-
Kami, hindi- kuru or kutki, marathi- kali
katuki
BS
It consist of dried rhizome of Picrorhiza
Kurroa royle ex benth
family
Scrophulariaceae

Morphological characteristic
Colour- greyish brown
Odour- slightly unpleasant
Taste- bitter
Extra features- cylindrical, straight or curved,
wrinkled longitudinally

Picrorhizin
kutkin
picroside-I,II,III,
D- mannitol
vanillic acid,
kurrin
kutkiol,
kutkisterolphenolic
kutkoside
phenolic glycosides- picein, androsin

Uses
Cathartic,
Stomachic
Antiperiodic( prevent recurrence of disease)
cholagouge,
Febrifuge
antimalerial,
jaundice
emmenagogue,
emetic
antidote for dog bite
abortifacient
bitter tonic
laxative

Quassia
Synonym-
Bitter wood, jamaica Quassia, bitter ash
BS
It is dried wood of stem of Aeschrion Excela(
Picroena Excela, or Picrasma Excela)
family-
Simarubaceae

Morphological characteristics
Colour- white but changes to yellow in air
Odour-no
taste- intense bitter

Quassin,
isoqassin
neoquassin
volatile oil,

Uses
Bitter tonic,
stomachic,
vermicide,
slight narcotic
in small dose increase appetite

Marine pharmacognosy
Definition: a branch of pharmacology concerned
with pharmacologically active substances present
in aquatic plants and animals; its objective is to
find and develop new therapeutic agents.

traditional Western pharmacognosy focused on the investigation and
identification of medically important plants and animals in the
terrestrial environment, although many marine organisms were used in
traditional Chines medicines.
research into the chemistry of marine organisms is relatively unexplored
and represents a vast resource for new medicines to combat major
diseases such as cancer, AIDS or malaria
Research typically focuses on sessile organisms or slow moving animals
because of their inherent need for chemical defenses.
Standard research involves an extraction of the organism in a suitable
solvent followed by either an assay of this crude extract for a particular
disease target or a rationally guided isolation of new chemical
compounds using standard chromatography techniques..

Marin sources are used to find novel drugs in
treatment of human ailments
Marin organism contains secondary metabolites
useful as antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer,anti-
inflammatory, neurophysiological, cardiovascular and
many more. Many of these species contains toxic
compounds

Classification of marine drugs
1 cardiovascular drugs– Anthopleurins, laminine, eptatretin,
saxitoxin, spongosine, eledosin, autonomium
2 anticancer compound– Ara-c, crassin acetate simularin
3 antimicrobial compounds– holotoxin A,B,C, tholepin,
cycloeudesmol, variabilin, ircinin-1
4 anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic- manolide, tetrado
toxin
5 marin toxins- ciguatoxin, palytoxin, saxitoxin, brevetoxin
6 miscellaneous- kainic acid, domoic acid, aplysinopsin

Cardiovascular active compound
Anthopleurins-
is a toxin from the venom of the sea anemones Anthopleura
Xanthogrammica and Anthopleura eleqantissima.
Anthopleurin has four isoforms (Anthopleurin-A, -B, -C, and -Q).
Their working mechanism is based on binding to sodium channels, which leads to
increased excitation especially in cardiac myocytes .positive inotropic effect without
acting on sodium potassium ATPase. it is35 times more potent than digoxin with less
toxicity

Eptatretin
Found in pacific hogfish Eptatretus Stoutii.
it is potent cardiac stimulant and effect is comparable to adrenalin

Laminine
It is hypotensive compound obtained from marin algae Laminaria Angustata

D(-) OCTOPAMINE
found in Octopus Macropus, O. vulgaris.
it produce adnergic and cardiovascular response

Saxitoxin
found in butter clam ie Saxidomus giganteus and
California mussel.
It is hypotensive

Autonomium
it is found in Vernogia fistularis.
it is both adrenergic and cholenergic compound hence
regulate behaviour of heart

ATX-II
It is polypeptide found in sea Anemones.
it is cardiotonic ( positive inotropic)

Holothurins and asterosaponins
these are marin saponins glycosides
Holothurins present in sea cucumbers of family holothuroidae.
It is cardiotonic and ichthyotoxic action( either toxic to fish or are toxins
produced by fish)
Asterosaponins obtained from star fishes of family asteroide.toxic to
various marin organisms. They have hypotensive, haemolytic,
antiinflammatory effect
Sea cucumber starfish

Spogosine
It is methoxy derivative of adenosine.
Found in caribbean sponge Crypotethia crypta.
it reduces rate and force of heart contraction

Eledosin
Obtained from posterior salivery glands of Cephalopod Eledone
moschata.
powerful hypotensive and strong vasodilator

Anticancer compounds
Ara-C (Cytarabine or cytosine arabinoside)
It is synthetic compound based on natural compound
spongosine and spongouridine obtained from
caribbean sponges
used mainly in the treatment of CANCER of WBC such as
Acute myeloida leukemia (AML) and non-hodgkin
lymphoma
Ara-C

Crassin acetate
It is obtained from caribbean gorgonian ( sea fans)
Pseudoplexaura Porosa.
It is cytotoxic to human leukemia.
it is cyclic diterpene
CRASIN ACETATE

Antimicrobial compounds
Holotoxine A,B,C ( steroid glycosides) -obtained from sea cucumber
Stichopus japonicum.
Tetrabromoheptane- from brown algae Dictyopteris zonaroides
Aeroplysinin-1(+) and1(-)- red algae and spoge
Prepacifenol- from red algae Laurencia pacifica
Tholpin- from annelida Thelepsus setosus
Debromolaurenterol- from sea hare Aplysua californica
Eunicin- from gorgonian corals, Eunicia mammosa
Acanthelin-1 – from Acanthella acuta

Antibiotic compounds
Cycloeudesmol- from rad algae, Chondria oppositiclada
variabilin, ircinin-1- from sponge, Ircinia strobilina and Ircinia oros
acetamide- from sponge, Veronigia archery
variabilin
cycloeudesmol

Anti-inflammetory and antispasmodic agents
Mannoalidae- it is non steroidal anti-inflammetory compound obtained
from sponge Luffariella variabilis.
Dendalone-3- hydroxy butyrate -from sponge, Phyllospongia dedyi
Flexibilis- from soft coral, sinularia
Luffariella variabilis.
sinularia

flustramineA, B- these are muscle relaxant obtained from swedish
marin moss Flustra foliaceae
Teradotoxin- is strong antispasmodic obtained from liver and ovaries of
puffer fishes
Flustra foliaceae
puffer fish

Marine toxins
Ciguatoxine
These are a group of marine biotoxins, which are the cause of
a foodborne intoxication known as ciguatera fish poisoning
(CFP). CFP is associated with consumption of coral reef fish
from tropical and subtropical waters in the Pacific and Indian
Oceans and the Caribbean sea.
Ciguatoxin is produced by Gambierdiscus toxicus, a type
of dinoflagellate, that are eaten by big coral reef fish,
Ciguatoxin usually accumulates in skin, head, viscera, and roe
of the fish.
Toxic symptomes are neurological,cardiovascular,
gastrointestinal like respiratory depression, bradycardia.

Palytoxin
it is an intense vasoconstrictor, and is
considered to be one of the most toxic
non- peptide substances known.
produced by several marine pylothia
species and can be found in many more
species due to accumulation. Because
palytoxin affects every cell in the body,
the symptoms are very different for the
various routes of exposure

Red tide toxins ( paralytic shell fish toxins)
These shellfish are filter feeders and, therefore, accumulate
neurotoxins, called saxitoxin, produced by microscopic algae.
these algae change colour of sea water as red water or red
tides. They contain peridinin , a red colour pigment.
Human toxicity and mortality can occur after ingestion of
these animals, but toxicity is also seen in wild animal
populations.
shellfish poisonings are water-insoluble, heat and acid-stable,
and ordinary cooking methods do not eliminate the toxins
marin toxins have yet not been used in clinical medicines

Miscellaneous compounds
They are used as anthelmentic, anticoagulant, insecticides.
kinic acid- anti-ascariatic activity
Domic acid- used against pinworm and ascaria
Ara-A- ( adenine arabinoside)-active aginst herpes
encephalitis
carrageenan- anticoagulant
aplisinopsin- antidepressent, cytotoxic activity

Study of traditional drugs
Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous or folk medicine)
comprises knowledge systems that developed over generations
within various societies before the era of modern medicine.
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as:
"Traditional medicine is the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and
practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences
indigenous to different cultures, whether understood or not, used
in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention,
diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental
illness.

Amala
Synonyms
Indian gooseberry, embilic myrobalan
Regional names
Sansk-amalki, dhatriphala,hindi-amala,marath-anvala, avalkanthi
B.S
Amala consist of fresh or dried fruits of Emblica officinalis
Family
Euphorbiaceae

Macroscopy
Colour-green when tender but changes to light yellow or brick red on
maturity
Taste- sour and astringent initially and sweet afterwards
Shape- globose
Size-1.5-2.5 cm in diameter
It is distinctly marked in six lobes

It is important source of vitamin C, minerals, amino acids
Tannin (gallic acid, ellagic acid),
sugar,
gum,
albumin,
crude cellulose,
moisture

Uses
Diuretic,
cooling,
refrigerant,
laxative,
antioxident,
antibacterial,
antiviral,
disorders of digestive system,

Marketed formulations
Triphala churna by zandu,
chawanprash by dabour
Jeevani malt by chirayu pharma

Kantakari
Synonyms
Kateli, yellow-berried nightshade
BS
It consist whole plant of Solanum surattense
Family
Solanaceae

Berries contain
Caffeic acid,
chlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid
, neochlorogenic acid, esculin,
Cycloartanol,cholesterol,diosgenin,
derivatives of cholesterol, fruit oil,
flower contains
Disgenin, apigenin, quercetin

Uses
Antiasthmatic,
aperient,(used to relieve constipation.)
diuretic,
digestive,
febrifuge,
decoction used in gonorrhoea, and to promot conception

It is ingredient of preparations like
chyawanprash,diakof, koflet(himalaya),
khadiradi gutika( dabur)

Shatavari
Synonym
Asparagus
Regional names
Sansk-narayani,vari,atirasa,hindi-satavar,satamul,marath-shatavari
BS
It is dried tuberous roots of Asparagus racemosus
Family
Liliaceae

Macroscopy
Colour-white
Taste-bitter
Shape -cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, swollen
in middle, tapering towards base.
size-5-15cm length,1-2cm diameter
Fracture- irregular

Steroidal saponins
shatavarinI,II,III,IV,
OTHERS
beta sitosterol,
stigmasterol,
sarsasepogenin,
spirostanolic acid,
aspargamine a

Uses
Antispasmodic,
aphordisiac,
Demulcent
,diuretic,
galactogogue,
refrigerant

Marketed formulation
It is ingredient of following
K G Tone (Aimil)
Diabecon, galactin,abana(Himalaya)
Dhatupaushtik churna, rhuma oil, mahanarayan tel(
Baidyanath)
J P massage oil, painkill oil (Jamuna pharma)
Shatavari kalp, shatavarex granules( Zandu)

Tylophora
Synonyms
Anantmul,
B .S
It consist of dried leaves and roots of Tylophora
Indica
Family
Asclepiadaceae

Macroscopy
Colour-yellow-brown
Odour-no
Taste-sweetish and subsequent acrid
Shape-elliptic-oblong,
Size-5-10cm long,2.5-5.3 cm wide

Alkaloid
Tylophorine,
tylophorinine,
tylophorinidine,
septicine
Phytosterols ‘
Flavonoids
Quercetin,
kaempferol,
tyloindane

Uses
Bronchial asthama,
bronchitis,
rheumatism,
Dermatitis
,emetic,
diphoretic,( induce sweting)
anti inflammatory,
antibacterial,
expectorent

Geriforte Aqua by Himalaya

BHILWA
SYNONYM
marking nut, oriental cashew, bhilama
BS
It consist of the tree of Semicarpus Anacardium Linn
family
Anacardiaceae

Macroscopy
Colour- shining black
Taste- bitter
Pericarp is abandent in black ,vesicant(causes severe skin, eye
and mucosal pain and irritation.) oily juice
Juice is known as bhilwa shell liquid witch is reach source of
phenolic compounds

Juice cantains
Bhilwanol (46%), monohydroxy phenol, semicarpol,
Fruit contains
nicotinic acid,
riboflavin,
thiamin,
anacardic acid,
bioflavanoids A,B,C,
tetrahydrobustaflavone,
tetrahydroamentoflavone,
nallaflavone,
anacarduflavanone

USES
asthma,ascites,
piles,
epilepsy,
neuralgia,
tumours,
warts,(solid blister)
psoriasis,
rheumatism,
abortifacient,
anthelmintic,
seed oil used externally in goute (kind of arthritis), leprosy, leucoderma
juice of pericarp is counter-irritent , vesicant(

MARKETED FORMULATIONS
ingredient of prasarini tail, patrangasava, sanjivani vati ( DABUR)

BACH
Synonym
Sweet flag, Sweet Root, Bach
BS
it is plant Acorus Calamus
family
Acoraceae

Charecters
it is perinnial (plant that lives for more
than two years) herb growing up to six
fit.
leaves are long, slender, grass like.
flowers are minute greenish yellow
in colour.
fruit is berry like

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Asarone,
beta asarone,
monoterpene hydrocarbons,
ketones

Medicinal uses
Analgesic for thooth ache or
headache
.
clean and disinfect teeth,
fatigue,
cough

Punarnava
Synonym
Hogweed
Regional names
Sansk-punarnava, gophagni, hindi-punarnava, mar- ghetuli, vasuchimuli, khaparkuti
BS
It consist of fresh as well as dried whole plant of Boerhaavia diffusa linn
Family
Nyctaginaceae

Macroscopic charectes
Colour-stem is greenish purple,roots are yellowish
brown,flowers are white or pink
Odour-dourless
taste-bitter
It have two verities
those having white flowers are sweta punarnava and
those with red flowers are called rakta punarnava

Phenolic glycoside
Punarnavoside
Others
boeravinones A,B,C,
beta sitosterol,
boeravine,
ursolic acid

USES
Antifibrinolytic (prevent the breakdown of BLOOD clots)
Anti-inflammatory,
Diuretic
IUD menorrhagia,
hepatoprotective,
antihypertensive,
blood purifier

Ingredient of preparations
Deepact-lupin hearb,
abana, immunol, diabecon- himalaya,
punarnawadi guggulin, punarnavarista-baidyanath,
sobigol-aimil,
j p liver syrup-jamun pharma

Chitrak
Synonym
White leadwort
Regional names
Sansk-agni,vahni,dahana,hindi-chira,chitrak,mar-
chitrak
BS
It consist of dried mature roots of Plumbago
zeylanica linn
Family
Plumbaginaceae

Macroscopy
Colour- reddish to deep brown,
Odour- disagreeable
Taste-acrid
Size- 30cm diameter

plumbagin

Uses
Increase digetion and appetite,
hypoglycemic,
hypolipidaemic,
CNS stimulant,
piles,
diarrhoea,
skin disease

ingredient of
j p liver syrup-jamuna pharma
Piles care, mansulate-chitryu
Chitrakadi bati avajeha- baidyanath

Apamarga
Synonym
Prickly chaff flower
Regional names
Sansk- apamarga.hindi-chirchira, mar- aghada
BS
It consist of dried whole plant of Acyranthes aspera linn
Family
Amaranthaceae

Triterpenoid saponin glycoside –
oleanoil acis ( aglycone)
Long chain alcohols,
long chain ketones

Uses
Astringent,
Diuretic,
Pneumonia,
renal dropsy,
Dysentery,
gonorrhoea,
Menorrhagia,
cancer

Ingredient of
Cystone tablet- himalya

Gokhru
Synonym
Caltrops fruit
Regional names
Sansk-goksuraka, trikanta,hind-gokhru, mar- sarate, gokharu
BS
These are dried ripe seeds of Tribulus terrestris linn
family
Zygophyllaceae

Macroscopy
colour- yellowish
Odour-no
taste- mucilagenous
Shape- globus fruits
Size-1.2cm diameter
Extra -fruit is densely hairy, spiny cocci, large pointed spin at each
coccus, two spines directed downwards, several seeds present in each
coccus

Steroidal saponin
Terestrosins A,B,C,D,E,
desgalactotigonin. F-
gitonin,desglucolanatigonins,
Gitonin,diosgenin, Chlorogenin
, hecogenin, neotiogenin,
other
tersterosideF,
Tribulosingracillin, dioscin
, flavonoids, beta sitosterol, stigmasterol

Uses
Cooling,
anti-inflammatory,
antiarthritic,
diuretic,
tonic,
aphordisiac,
build immunity,
painful micturition,
impotency,
prolong and improve duration of erection,
stimulate reproductive organ

Ingredient of
Bonnisan, confido, himplasia,renalka- himalya,
dhatupaushtik churna- baidyanath,
semento- aimil,
body plus cap- jay pranav ayurved

Shankhpushpi
Synonym
Sankhapushpi
regional names
sansk- sankhapushpi, hindi- sankhpushpi, mar- shankhavela,
sanklmhull
BS
It consist of whole aerial parts of Convolvulus pluricaulis
Family
Convolvulaceae

alkaloid
shankhpushpine,
Flavonoides and cumarins
Kaempferol,
long chain fatty alcohols,
beta sitosterol,
sugars

Uses
Brain tonic,
antihypertensive,
tranquillizer,
improve memory

Ingredient of
Mentat, anxocare-himalaya,
Shankhapushpi syrup-baidyanath,
Shankhpushpi churna- shantikunj

Adulsa
Synonym
Vasaka
Regional names
Sansk- atarusa, vasaka, hindi- adusa, mar- adulsa
BS
It consist of fresh or dried leaves of Adhatoda vasica nees
family
Acanthaceae

Macroscopy
Colour- green when fresh , brown to grey on drying
odour-characteristic
taste- bitter
Shape- lanceolate-TO ovate lanceolate,
Margin- crenate to entire,
apex- acuminate (tapering to point)
Base- tapering
Petiolr- 2-10cm broad,
vennation- pinnate,
glabrous or slightly pubescent

Alkaloids
vasicine,
vasicinol,
vasicinone,
adhatonine

Uses
bronchitis,
asthama,
cough,
local bleeding due to peptic ulcer,
piles,
menorrhagia,
tuberculasis

ingredient of
vasavaleha-dabur
Kasamrit herbal- baidyanath
Vasaka cap- himalaya

Tinospora
Synonym
Guduchi,
Regional names
sansk- anirtavallf, amrta,guducika, hindi- giloe, gurcha
BS
It consist of matured pieces of stem of Tinospora cordifolia
Family
Menispermaceae

Macroscopy
Colour-young stems green and mature stems
are light brown
Odour- no
taste- bitter
Pieces of varying thickness, lenticels are present

columbin, tinosporaside,,alkaloids
jactrorhizine,palmatine,
berberine, tembeterine,
sesquiterpene glucoside
tinocordifolisoide,
disaccharide
cordifolioside A,B
Others
choline, tinosporic acid, tinosporal, tinosporone

Uses
rejuvinator,
hypoglycaemic,
immunomodulatory,
astringent,
antipyretic,
blood purifier,
antineoplastic,
cardiotonic,
antiasthmatic,
skin disease,
goute,( kind of arthritis)
rheumatic arthritis

one of the ingredient of
guduchi tablet, abana, bonnisan, rumalaya- himalaya

Methi
Synonym
Fenugreek, greek hay
regional names
sansk- methini, hindi- methi,
BS
It consist of dried seeds of Trigonella foenuma- graecum linn
family
Fabaceae

Macroscopy
colour-dull yellow
Odour-pleasant
taste – bitter
shape- oblong
siaze- 0.2-0.5cm long, 0.15-0.35cm broad

seed contains
Steroidal saponins
trigofoenoside A,B,C,D,E,F,G,
Trigonelloside C,
Yamogenin tetroside B,C,
tenugrin B
trigogenin,
neotigogenin,
yemogenin,
diosgenin,
gitogenin,
flavonoid
quercetin, luteolin, vitexin, vicenin-1,2

Uses
Anticholesterolemic,
antiinflammatory,
antitumour,
Carminative, demulcent, emollient,
expectorent, febrifuge, galactogogue,
Hypoglycemic,laxative, parasiticide,
uterine tonic

dabur vatika antidandruff shampoo-dabur
Ayurslim, geriforte, immunol- himalaya

Lahsun
Synonym
Garlic
regional names
sansk– rasona, yavanesta, hind- lahasun, mar- lasun
BS
it consist of bulb of Allium sativum linn
family
Liliaceae

Macroscopy
Colour-pappery whitish and brittle scales
odour- -characteristic, aromatic
taste- aromatic pungent
Bulbs are composed of several cloves, enclosed in white skin
of parent bulb

Volatile oil contains
allyl disulphide,
allin,
allicin,
allyl propyl disulphide,
diallyl disulphide
other
thoglycoside,
amino acid
, fatty acids,
flavonols,
vitamines,
trace elements,
mucilage,
albumin

Uses
Anthelmintic,
antiasthmatic,
anticholesterolemic,
antiseptic, antispasmodic,
cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic,
Expectorant, febrifuge,
stimulant,stomachic,tonic, vasodilator,
colon cancer, cough, whooping cough, gangrene
of lung( tissue dies)

lasuna tablet- himalaya
Lashunadi bati- baidyanath

Palash
synonym
dhak, bastard teak, bengal kino tree, flame of
forest
BS
it consist of whole plant of Butea monosperma
Family
Papilionaceae

butea gum contain
leucocyanidin,
procyanidin,
gallic acid,
riboflavin,
flower contains
flavonoid glycosides,
amino acids,
fatty acids

Uses
anti- implantation,
anti-vovulatory ,
antibacterial,
worm infection,
extract of seed is used to prevent pregnancy,
anthelmintic,
inflammation,
piles,
skin disease,
tumers

one of ingredient of
lukol- himalaya,
j p nikhar oil- jamuna pharma

Guggal
Synonym
gumgugul, salai-gogil
regional names
sansk- purd, kaugika, hindi- gugal, guggui, mar- guggul
BS
it consist of gum resin obtained by incision of bark of Commiphora
mukul
family
Burseraceae

Macroscopy
colour-brown tears, with water forms
white emulsion,
odour- balsamic
taste- bitter aromatic

Gum,
essential oil,
sterols
Guggulsterols I to VI,
beta sitosterol,
cholesterol,
z- guggulsterone,
E- guggulsterone,
sugars,
amino acids,
alpha camphorene,
cembrene,
allylcembrol,
flavonoids
quercetine

Uses
reduce holesterol, LDL, VLDL( bad cholesterol)
Increase HDL( good cholesterol)
Inhibit platelet aggregation,
reduce body weight
Astringent,
anti rheumatic,
antiseptic,
expectorent,
aphordisiac,
demulcent,
emmenagogue

arogyavardhini gutika- dabur
abana, diabecon, diakof- himalaya

Neem
Synonym
margosa, azardirachta
BS
It consist of almost all parts of plant Azardirachta
indica
Family
Meliaceae

Macroscopy
Colour- leaves are yellowish green
odour- charecterstic
taste- bitter
Neem is large evergreen tree

It contains isoprenoids( terpenoids) and non isoprenoids
Limodids(bitter),
Tricyclic diterpenoids
nimbol,
morgocin,
nimbidol,
Nimolin
, nimbisinol,
nimbinone,
nimbione,
nimboson,
margosolone,
Nonisopernois includes
glycosides,
flavonoids,
sulphur compounds,,
polysaccharides,

Uses
Skin infections,
cardiovascular disease,
diabetes,
cancer,
pesticide,
antifeedent,
insecticide,
antimalerial

Gymnema
Synonym
Gymnema sylvester
regional names
sansk- meshashring, hind- gurmar, mar- kavali, vakundai
BS
It consist of dried leaves of Gymnema sylvestre
Family
Asclepiadaceae

macroscopy
it is large, woody, much
branched climber,
leaves are simple, opposite,
elliptic, pubescent on both
surface

Gymnemic acid,
tartaric acid,
resin,
carbohydrate,
albumin

Uses
Antidiabetic agent,
Gulmar ( suger destroying), it abolish taste of
suger.
It anaesthetises sweet taste buds and effect last
for several hours
Astringent,
stomachic,
tonic,
refrigerant

Shilajit
Synonym
Mineral Pitch, mineral wax in English
Sanskrit meaning is "conqueror of mountains and destroyer of weakness.“
thick, sticky tar-like substance with a colour ranging from white to dark brown
Botanical Name :- Asphaltum
Shilajit is produced by the decomposition of plant material from species
such as Euphorbia royleana andTrifolium repens
Shilajeet is obtained from rocks in the Himalayan region.
It is a form of mineral that drips from the cracks of the rocks during hot
weather.
It is decomposition of the plant matter in the rocks centuries before.
The bio-transformed plant matter is extruded from the rocks by
geothermal pressures.
It is collected in raw form for further purification.

humic substances, including fulvic acid,( around 60% to 80% ),
contain at least 85 minerals in ionic form
humic substances are the results of degradation of organic matter, mainly vegetal
substances, which is the result of the action of many microorganisms.
Humic acid.
eldagic acid,
some fatty acids,
resins
, latex,
gums,
albumins,
triterpenes,
sterols,
aromatic carboxylic acids,
, amino acids,
polyphenols,
phenolic lipids

Uses
Antioxident
Antibacterial
Immune defense
Anti-inflammatory
Dispels pain
Anti-ulcer
Anti-anxiety,
anti-stress
Anti-aging (both mental and physical)

Nagarmotha
Synonym
nut grass- english, mutha, nagarmotha,-hindi ,
moth,-mar, mustak-sansk
BS
It consist of dried tuberous roots and rhizomes
of Cyperus rotundus
family
Cyperaceae

Macroscopy
Colour- dark brown
Odour- aromatic
Taste- sweetish aromatic, somewhat
pungent

Flavonoids,
alkaloids,
fatty acids,
sterols,
tannins,
essential oil,
oil contains, cyperene,
cyperol,
isocyperol,
sugetriol,
sugeonol,
cyprotundone,
cyperenone

Uses
Stimulant,
tonic,
diuretic,
stomachic,
carminative,
diaphoretic,
astringent,
emmenagogue,
vermifuge

Diarex,-himalaya, hempushpa oil- RajVaidya Sheetal Prasad &
Sons

Indian traditional system of medicines

Ayurveda
Ayurveda is a Sanskrit word,
derived from two roots: ayur, which means life,
and veda, knowledge.
Knowledge arranged systematically with logic
becomes science. Ayurveda is the science of life
It has its root in ancient vedic literature and
encompasses our entire life, the body, mind and
spirit.
It is the earliest health care system of India
beginning over 5,000 years ago.

Purusha/Prakruti
According to Ayurveda,
every human being is a creation of the cosmos, the
pure cosmic consciousness, as two energies: male
energy, called Purusha and female energy,Prakruti.
Purusha is choiceless passive awareness,
while Prakruti is choiceful active consciousness.
Prakruti is the divine creative will.
Purusha doesn't take part in creation,
but Prakruti does the divine dance of creation
called leela.

In creation, Prakruti is first evolved or manifested as
supreme intelligence, called mahat.
Mahat is the buddhiprincipal (individual intellect)
which further manifests as self identity,
called ahamkara, which is ego.
Ahamkara is influenced by three basic universal
qualities: satva, rajas and tamas.
Satva is responsible for clarity of perception.
Rajas causes movement, sensations, feelings and
emotions.
Tamas is the tendency towards inertia, darkness,
heaviness, and is responsible for periods of confusion
and deep sleep.

Manifestation of Creation
From the essence of satva the five senses are created:
the ears to hear,
skin to perceive touch,
eyes to see,
the tongue to taste,
and the nose, to smell.
The essence of rajas is manifested as the five motor organs:
speech,
hands,
feet,
genitals
and the organs of excretion.

The mind is derived from satva, while rajas is
manifested as prana, the life force.
The tamasic quality is also responsible for the
creation of tan matra, the subtle elements, and from
whom the five basic elements are manifested.
They are space,
air,
fire,
Water
and earth.
It is from pure consciousness that space is
manifested.

Mental Constitution
Vedic philosophy classifies human nature into three basic qualities:
satvic,
rajasic
and tamasic.
These individual differences in psychological and moral dispositions and their
reactions to socio-cultural and physical environments are described in all the classic
texts of Ayurveda.
Satvic qualities imply essence, reality, consciousness, purity and clarity of perception
which are responsible for goodness and happiness.
All movements and activities are due to rajas. It leads to the life of sensual
enjoyment, pleasure and pain, effort and restlessness.
Tamas is darkness, inertia, heaviness and materialistic attitudes. There is a constant
interplay of these three gunas (qualities) in the individual consciousness, but the
relative predominance of either satva, rajas, or tamas is responsible for individual
psychological constitution.

Vata, Pitta and Kapha: the Three Doshas
The structural aspect of the body is made up of five elements,
but the functional aspect of the body is governed by three biological humors. –
Ether and air together constitute -vata;
fire and water,- pitta;
water and earth,- kapha.
Vata, pitta and kapha are the three are biological components of the organism.
They govern psycho-biological changes in the body and physio-pathological changes
too.
Vata-pitta-kapha are present in every cell, tissue and organ.

In every person they differ in permutations and combinations.
The sperm is the male seed, and the ovum is the female egg.
They also contain vata-pitta-kapha (VPK).
Bodily vata-pitta-kapha changes according to diet,
life style and emotions.
The sperm gets influenced by the father's lifestyle, diet and emotions,
and the ovum by the mother's.
At the time of fertilization, when a single sperm enters a single ovum,
individual constitution is determined.

According to Ayurveda, there are seven body
types:
mono-types (vata, pitta or kapha predominant),
dual types (vata-pitta, pitta-kapha or, kapha-vata),
equal types, (vata,pitta and kapha in equal proportions).
Every individual has a unique combination of these
three doshas.
To understand individuality is the foundation of healing
according to Ayurveda, "The Science of Life".

The Qualities of the Three Doshas
The three Doshas possess qualities and their increase or decrease in the system
depends upon the similar or antagonistic qualities of everything ingested.
Vata is : dry, cold, light, mobile, clear, rough, subtle
Pitta is : slightly oily, hot, intense, light, fluid,free flowing, foul smelling.
Kapha is: oily, cold, heavy, stable, viscid, smooth, soft
Both Vata and Pitta are light and only Kapha is heavy.
Both Vata and Kapha are cold and only Pitta is hot.
Both Pitta and Kapha are moist and oily and only Vata is dry.
Anything dry almost always increases Vata , anything hot increases Pitta and
anything heavy , Kapha.

Seats of Doshas
Vatha Adharangam Lower part of the body
Pitta Madhyangam Middle part of the body.
Kapha Urdhwangam Upper part of the body
- See more at: http://www.nagarjunaayurveda.com/ayurveda-basics-principles.aspx#sthash.97ESUctd.dpuf

The Seven Dhatus
The word dhatu comes from the root word dha which means
basis or foundation.
In Ayurvedic medicine, the structural components that nourish
the body are called dhatus or tissue levels.
There are seven primary sapta dhatus
: • rasa – plasma tissue, lymph
• rakta – blood, red blood cells
• mamsa – muscle
• meda – adipose tissue, fat
• asthi – bone and cartilage
• majja – nerve, marrow, connective tissue
• shukra/artava – male and female reproductive system
Problems that occur in the dhatus are:
• Insufficient nourishment
• Over nourishment
• Structural damage

the Disease Process
According to Ayurveda, health is a state of balance between the body,
mind and consciousness.
Within the body, Ayurveda recognizes the three doshas, or bodily
humors vata, pitta and kapha;
seven dhatus, or tissues, plasma, blood, muscle, fat, bone, nerve, and
reproductive;
three malas, or wastes; feces, urine and sweat; and agni, the energy of
metabolism.
Disease is a condition of disharmony in any of these factors.

The root cause of imbalance, or disease, is an aggravation of dosha,
vata-pitta-kapha, caused by a wide variety of internal and external factors.
According to the attributes of these different etiological factors the bodily
humors become aggravated and start to accumulate at their respective sites.
Vata tends to accumulate in the colon,
pitta in the intestines and
kapha in the stomach.
the accumulated dosha reaches a state of overflowing the original site and
spreads throughout the body.
The aggravated dosha then enters and creates a lesion in a specific weak tissue
where pathological changes are manifested in the organ or system.

Chikitsa, Disease Management
Ayurveda says that to restore health we must understand the exact quality, nature and
structure of disease, disorder, or imbalance.
The body has its own intelligence to create balance. and we are helping in that process.
There are four main classifications of management of disease in
Ayurveda:
shodan, or cleansing;
shaman or palliation;(specialised medical care for people with
serious illnesses)
rasayana, or rejuvenation; ( To restore to an original or new
condition)
and satvajaya, or mental hygiene.

Ayurveda and Relationships
According to Ayurveda, our life is a relationship;
the relationship between you and your spouse,
girlfriend and boyfriend,
and parents and children.
Equally important is the relationship with yourself, your relationship between the
body, mind and consciousness,
and the inner relationship between vata-pitta-kapha.
These relationships are life, and
Ayurveda is a healing art which helps bring clarity in relationships.
Clarity in relationships brings compassion, and compassion is love, therefore love is
clarity.
Without this clarity, there is no insight.
Ayurveda is an art of insight which brings harmony, happiness, joy and bliss in our
daily life, in our relationships, and in our daily living.
Ayurveda, can definitely bring longevity to life.
It can bring a quality of consciousness, such that one can get insight to deal with
one's inner life, one's inner emotions, one's inner hurt, grief and sadness.
Ayurveda is a total healing art.

Preparation and standardization Asavas,Arishtas

Asava and arishtas -are liquid ayurvedic preparations
or self generated herbal fermentations.
Asavas prepared by direct use of fresh herbal juices or
herbs soaked in water
Arishtas are prepared with decoction of herbs in
boiling water
Both have sweet test, alcoholic smell

Powder herbs are soak in herbal juice or decoction in
presence of sugar or jaggaery for specific period of time.
Fermentation is brought by addition of dhataki, dhaay ke
phool( woodfordia fruticosa) flowers.
fermentated alcohol facilitate extraction of active constituents
in herbs and also act as preservative.
Both asva and arishta contains up to 12 % alcohol and hence
called medicinal wines.

Preparation of Asava
Boil required quantity of water. Add sugar or honey or jaggery, cooled
and transferred to wooden vessel.then add powderd drug mentioned in
formula. Cover vessel with lid and edges are sealed with seven
consecutive layers of clay smeared cloth.vessel is kept in basment for
specified period of time, after that vessel is removed ,liquid is decanted
or filtered. Asava can be stored for any length of time in well stoppered
glass bottle.
E,g, kumariasava, lauhasava
Characterstic-
 filtered final asava should not contain any particle of sediment
Taste should not be sour
Should have charecterstic odour of fermented liquid
If any growth of mould is obsereved , reject immediately
 mix equal quantity of water and asava before consumption

Preparation of Arishta
Prepare decoction of crude drug in potable water.
filter it and transfer to wooden pots. Wooden pots should be fumigated
with pimply churna and also smeared with ghee before addition of
parent material or sugar. Then add sugar, honey, jaggery to decoction.
Now add dravas, other powder ingredients and dhataki pushpa if
mentioned. close vessel with lid and seal edges with clay smeared cloth
of seven layers. place vessel in basement ( underground cellar) all under
heap of paddy to ensure constant atmospheric temperature during
fermentation. after specified period of 7-10 days , remove pot and
decant fluid. After 2-3 days when particle of sediment is settled down
arishta is botteled.arishta can be stored for any length of time in well
stopped glass bottle
sumption

Charecterstics-
Filtered final arishta should not contain any
particle of sediment
The taste should not be sour
Should have characteristic odour of
fermented liquid
If any growth of mould is observed reject
immediately
 mix equal quantity of water and arishta befor
con

DIFFERENT PARAMETERS OF STANDARDIZATION OF ASAVA ARISHTA
It generally involves the following parameters:
1. Orgamnoleptic Parameters
a) Colour of sample
b) Odor of sample
c) Taste of sample
d) Determination of pH of sample
2. Physical Parameters
a) Determination of foreign organic matter

b) Determination of ash value
Total ash value
Acid insoluble ash
Water soluble ash
Sulphated ash
c) Determination of extractive value
Alcohol soluble extractive value
Water soluble extractive value

d) Determination of moisture content
e) Determination of physical constant
Melting point
Boiling point
Refractive index
Optical rotation
f) Determination of specific gravity
g) Determination of solid content
h) Determination of alcohol content

3. [Chemical parameters
– following parameters involves in chemical evaluation like
a) Alkaloids – Dragandroffs test
b) Glycosides – Molish test
c) Flavonoids – Shinoda test
d) Phenolic – Lead acetate test
e) Tannins – Ferric chloride test
f) Steroids – Salkowski reaction
g) Amino acids – Ninhydrine test
h) Carbohydrates – Fehling’s test, Benedict test

4. Toxicological parameters –
It involves following parameters
a)Pesticides residue
b) Heavy metal
c) Microbial contamination

Taila is liquid ayurvedic prepararation
E,g. Anu taila, Kanak taila, Narayan taila
Preparation of taila-
Preparation of taila contains three components-
drava(liquide in the form of swarasa),kalka( fine paste of drug)
, sneha drava( taila).
Unless otherwise indicated in text , kalka, sneha and drava are
taken in 1,4.16 parts respectively. kalka and drava are mixed
together. Sneha is then added boiled and stirred to obtained
desired paka
i.e. mrudu paka ( useful for nasya)
,madhyam paka( useful for pana or vasti) and
khara paka(useful for abhyanga).

Exception to this rule are
If no drava is prescribed; 4 parts of water is added to one
part of sneha, the kalka is 1/4th of weight of sneha.
If number of drava are 4 or less than 4; each drava has to
be taken 4 times the weight of sneha.
If drava are more than 4; each drava will be equal in
weight to sneha.
If no kalka is prescribed in formula then drugs of swarasa
may be used as kalka which should be 1/4th of sneha.

Characteristics
 taila will have colour , odour, consistancy
of oil used.
Taila should be preserved in bottle
 taila should be taken with anupan(
vehicle)
Taila should be used within 16 months

Standerization of taila
1 Colour
2 Smell
3 Appearance
4 Touch Oily
5 Clarity
6 Specific gravity
7 Acid value mg/gm
8 Saponfication value
9 Iodine value gm/100gm

Churna is solid ayurvedic preparation of powder of drugs with
often taken with some anupan like milk, ghee, honey. fine the
powder the better its therapeutic effect
Preparation-
Make powder of crud drug and sieve through cloth, or
mechanical shifter. If there is more than one drug each drug
should be separately powdered, sieved and weighed. finally
mix all the powders well together. if salt , sugar, camphor is
mentioned then it should be powdered and added separately
at end.
Charecters-
Powder should be fine at least of 80 mesh size
It should be kept in air tight container
It should be used within 6 months.

Standerization of churna
1 Study of organoleptic characters
i. Colour
ii. Odour
iii. Taste
2 Determination of physico-chemical parameters
 Moister content
 Total ash
 Acid insoluble ash
 Water soluble ash
 Water soluble extractive
 Alcohol soluble extractive
 Crude fiber contents

3 Quantitative estimation of selected phyto- constituents
Total alkaloids
4 Evaluation of Churna
 Powder fineness
 Bulk density
 Tap density
 Angle of repose
 Compressibility
 Hausner ratio
5 Determination of Ph
6 Establishing the safety pertaining to Heavy metals & Microbial
load

Bhasma is solid ayurvedic preparation in which metals, minerals and
animal products are brunt to ash. they are generally white, pale yellow,
black or red.
eg. Suvarnabhasma, pravalbhasma,launhbhasma, shankhbhasma
Preparation-
Bhasma is prepared by two stage method i.e shodhana and marana
1 shodhana-
it is very first stage of metal purification called shodhana.
shodhana eliminates harmful matter, modifies or converts undesirable
properties to desirable enhanced therapeutic action. it involves
immersion of metal sheets in taila, gomutra or dukdha(milk)

2 marana-
in this method purified drug is put in to stone morter ( khalva) and grounded with
specified metal, mineral and animal part for specified period of time. then small
cakes are made( cakrikas) and dried under sunlight. Dried cakes are placed in single
layer in mud tray and closed with another tray and sealed by clay smeared with
cloth of seven consecutive layers. In the ground pit of appropriate size is dug. Half
of pit is filled with dried cow dung cakes. then above processed clay tray is placed in
it and pit is again packed with cow dung cake. Fire is lit from all sides and middle of
pit. After specified burning , it is allowed to cool at room temperature. Clay tray is
removed and seal broken. Contents are taken out and finely powdered. The final
bhasma should be preserved in airtight earthen container.
Characterstics-
Final bhasma should be free from metallic luster
Bhasma when rubbed between fingers should be so fine so as to get easily into
lines of finger
In water bhasma should float on surface

Standardization of bhasma
Organoleptic characters
Sound : The Bhasma should have imperceptible sound
on grinding the Bhasma between teeth.
Colour : depends
Touch - Soft ~ Imperceptible coarseness in the Bhasma
Taste - The Bhasma should be tasteless
Odour - The Bhasma should be odourless

Physico-chemical parameters
pH :
Ash Value (AV):
Acid Insoluble Ash (AIA) :
Particle Size Distribution
X-ray Diffraction
Inductively Coupled Plasma – Emission Spectroscopy
UV-Visible Spectrophotometry

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