An employer's perspective on teaching essential employability skills

An employer's perspective on teaching essential employability skills
to advertising students at St. Lawrence College
Lindsey Fair
September, 2013
An applied research project submitted to Cape Breton University in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Business Administration in Community Economic Development
Primary Advisor:
Dr. Gertrude MacIntyre
Founding Director of MBA (CED) Program and CED Institute
Shannon School of Business
Cape Breton University
Secondary Advisor:
John Conrad, MBA, MA Ed., BSc.
Associate Dean, School of Business
St. Lawrence College
©All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, by
photocopying or other means, without the permission of the author.
Lindsey Fair
Cape Breton University, 2013

Abstract
From an employer's perspective this study highlights the need for a shift in
leadership of who's driving the essential employability skills (EES) agenda from
governments and institutions to employers and students. Success with student-demanded
career placements, especially those in hyper-competitive marketplaces, are proving to be
more related to EES than to the program of study. A variety of resources are being
directed to teaching employability skills at many post-secondary institutions; however, no
significant EES gap improvements have been noted in the last decade.
Through a qualitative study using open-ended interview, this research sheds light
on what EES gaps exist among employers, who should lead the development of EES, and
how best youth entering the labour market should develop the EES they will need to
succeed.
Keywords: essential employability skills, graduates, labour market, higher education,
experiential learning, employers

Acknowledgements
This research project required the support and knowledge from several of my
peers that I am grateful for. In particular, I would like to thank Kathy Patterson and Pam
Armstrong from St. Lawrence College (SLC). Pam provided assistance in locating
appropriate research participants and provided encouragement along the way. Kathy
provided contacts, contributed input into the subject matter, and shared insights into the
advertising program and the internship process at SLC. Most of all Kathy provided sound
advice and constant encouragement over the entire course of the MBA program.
Due to the qualitative nature of this project it would not have been possible
without the employer participants that volunteered for nothing in exchange besides a
simple cup of coffee. They took time out of their busy days to share their experiences for
the future success of students and youth. I thank you for this and I’m sure the students
will someday as well.
This paper was a whirlwind process completed in an extremely condensed
timeframe that required my advisors to provide almost instant feedback and answer my
ongoing questions. They provided guidance, encouragement and truly created a positive
environment for learning. Dr. MacIntyre and John Conrad, I am thankful for your
support.
George Karaphillis provided support, input and feedback throughout the two year
MBA program. Most of all, I am thankful for George’s patience and flexibility as I
completed the program.
I always thought that dedications and acknowledgments of family and friends in a

research project rather puerile; however, I am of a changed mind in recognizing the
significant role they have played in the process. My friends have had to endure my
stresses, be there to celebrate my success and even proof-read for me from time to time.
My family has had to deal with a messy house that I would ‘get to when I’m done this
chapter’, an extremely tired mom in the morning after long nights at my desk and the
constant and almost only conversation topic I would muster up in the last few months
being that of essential employability skills. THANK YOU.

Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study.............................................................................. 1
Background ................................................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................... 3
Significance................................................................................................................ 4
Research Questions .................................................................................................... 4
Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................. 5
Delineations................................................................................................................ 6
Remainder of the Study: A Roadmap......................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature ....................................................................... 8
Essential Employability Skills.................................................................................... 8
Conflict between mandated EES and what graduates demonstrate ......................... 10
Advertising Communications programs....................................................................11
Addressing the mismatch and closing the gap ......................................................... 13
Experiential learning as a way to address EES shortages ........................................ 14
Cooperative work placements and Internships................................................... 17
On-campus advertising agencies ........................................................................ 18
Graduates Role ......................................................................................................... 20
Institutional Role ...................................................................................................... 21
Employers Role ........................................................................................................ 24
Literature Review Summary .................................................................................... 26
Chapter Three: Methodology and Procedures .................................................................. 27
Research Methodology............................................................................................. 28
Participant Population(s) .......................................................................................... 28
Research Design and Instrumentation...................................................................... 29
Data Collection and Recording ................................................................................ 30
Data Processing and Analysis................................................................................... 30
Limitations................................................................................................................ 31
Ethical Considerations.............................................................................................. 32
Pilot Studies.............................................................................................................. 32

Chapter Four: Presentation of Results .............................................................................. 34
Data Analysis Process .............................................................................................. 34
The Employer Participants ....................................................................................... 34
Thematic Analysis .................................................................................................... 38
Gaps are where the confusion starts ................................................................... 38
What gaps need to be addressed? ....................................................................... 41
Can EES even be taught?.................................................................................... 43
IF EES are teachable, school is not the place they should be taught.................. 44
Student Work should be Real Work.................................................................... 46
Chapter 5: Summary, Discussion and Recommendations ................................................ 51
Summary of Study.................................................................................................... 51
Discussion ................................................................................................................ 54
The EES that are not being met. ......................................................................... 54
Why is the current model not working? ............................................................. 56
Whose responsibility is it to address the gaps? .................................................. 57
The employer's roles........................................................................................... 58
What does the research suggest in terms of improving the model? ................... 58
Implications.............................................................................................................. 60
Recommendations .................................................................................................... 62
For Employers .................................................................................................... 62
For Institutions.................................................................................................... 62
For Students........................................................................................................ 63
For Future Study................................................................................................. 63
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 64
References......................................................................................................................... 65
Appendices........................................................................................................................ 73

List of Tables and Figures
List of Tables
Table 1: Key Principles and their application in differing HE areas 15
Table 2: Criteria for evaluating experiential learning opportunities 16
Table 3: Characteristics of Participants 35
Table 4: Sample Group (SG) Stratification 36
Table 5: Revised Sample Group (SG) Stratification 37
Table 6: Prioritization of Employer Roles in Developing EES 40
Table 7: EES shortfalls that believe their new employees meet all EES upon hiring 43
Table 8: Who should teach EES 45
Table 9: Which schools should teach EES 46
Table 10: Work-Based Learning Method Preferences 47
Table 11: Issues with St. Lawrence Colleges’ Advertising Program 48
Table 12: SG3m Delivery Mode Preferences 49
List of Figures
Figure 1: HE priorities in relation to the employability agenda 23
Figure 2: Desired EES versus reported EES shortfalls 39
Figure 3: SG Reported Gaps 41
Figure 4: Personal Skill Shortfalls 44

An employer's perspective on teaching essential employability skills 1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
A decade after governments, employers and post-secondary institutions
established a core set of essential employability skills (EES) significant gaps still exist
(Stuckey & Monroe, 2013). Students are demanding more of their institutions,
specifically regarding career placements, upon graduation. Success with student-
demanded career placements, especially those in a hyper-competitive marketplace are
proving to be more directly related to EES than to their program of study (Raybould &
Sheard, 2005).
There has been a significant amount of research dedicated to the role of
institutions in developing EES; as well as documented discussions from the students’
perspectives. However, little research exists from the employers’ perspective. To fill the
EES gaps much of the research argues that employers will no doubt have to play a much
more active role in these developments (Stuckey et al., 2013). The question is what is
their role?
Background
To many employers the discipline of study doesn’t matter but rather the ability for
employees to make decisions, handle complex information and to communicate
effectively (Knight & Yorke, 2002). Employers, in collaboration with governments,
policy makers and vocational institutions have determined a set of skills required in new
employees regardless of the industry. These skills are referred to as Essential
Employability Skills (EES). The Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities
(MTCU) prescribes to the following definition of EES “EES are skills that, regardless of

a student’s program or discipline, are critical for success in the workplace, in day-to-day
living, and for lifelong learning” (2003). There are six areas that students must
demonstrate by graduation within the EES mandate: communication, numeracy, critical
thinking and problem solving, information management, interpersonal and personal skills
[See Appendix A for a detailed chart describing the Essential Employability Skills].
Arguably, institutes of higher education (HE) have always had a focus on
preparing students for careers whilst meeting the needs of the current economy (Santiago,
2009). As a way to do this, sandwich courses (work placements embedded within a
semester) were introduced in the 1960's to provide work placements within the program
of study. Cooperatives started much earlier in 1906 when colleges realized that students
were already employed while studying without relating those experiences to their course
of study (Santiago, 2009).
The Advertising and Marketing Communications Management program at St.
Lawrence College (SLC) in Kingston, Ontario, Canada has been piloting an experiential
learning mode of delivery for third year students through a faculty-lead, on-campus
advertising agency. Their students also complete cooperative / internship work
placements in both the second year and third year of their program. The program is
currently assessing the viability of expanding this pilot agency into a larger component of
the curriculum to aid in teaching essential employability skills (Fair, 2013). Employers
currently get involved in the SLC program by offering work placements, providing
advice on curriculum through the advisory panel, occasionally participate as guest
speakers in the classroom, contributing work experiences to the classroom setting and
when hiring graduates.

Statement of the Problem
A variety of resources are being directed to teaching employability skills at many
post-secondary institutions including financial resources, human capital resources and
physical resources. However, these resources are potentially contributing very little to
graduate success in the workforce (Cranmer, 2006). In many cases, graduates possess
more industry-related knowledge than they require, and yet lack transferable, job-ready
skills they need to survive much less thrive (Hennemann & Liefner, 2010).
While EES have been deemed vitally important for graduate employment (Yorke,
2007), there is a lack of substantial research from the employers perspective on specific
employability skills gaps and how those can best be achieved before graduation (Mason,
G., Williams, G., & Cranmer, S. 2009). There is an ongoing debate about the best way to
teach EES and who should be responsible for teaching them (Harvey, 2000). Experience
is one of the easy answers to obtaining EES, but what kind of experience? Not all
experiences provide value, teach the necessary EES; and not all experiences provide
equal opportunity for graduates even if they have participated (McCall, 2004).
Graduate jobs may be expanding but the number of graduates in many fields is
also burgeoning and subsequently creating a hyper-competitive marketplace in many
industries. Graduates within these hyper-competitive industries, advertising being one of
them, are compared not on technical skill (as that is the base starting point that so many
applicants have), but rather on personality and life-skills – in other words EES (Harvey,
2000). Advertising graduates are no different than the general public in regards to
essential employability skill gaps and employers report the same weaknesses when hiring
new graduates as other employers do in other industries (Hazdovac, 2012).

Skills gaps are costing the Ontario economy up to $24.3 billion in forgone GDP
(Stuckey et al., 2013). In order to alleviate this loss, post-secondary institutions and
employers need to find solutions and define each of their roles in creating those solutions.
Significance
By understanding EES gaps, role definition, and best methods for teaching EES,
HE institutions, and in particular St. Lawrence College, will be more successful in
graduate career placement. They will be able to direct resources to areas that meet their
mandate of teaching EES, and most importantly lead in graduate employability.
In particular, this project will add to the greater discussion of a proposed agency
model of teaching EES at St. Lawrence College. Before determining if an agency model
is the right model for delivery, the gaps and role of industry employers must be
understood.
Research Questions
The primary topic of research is centred on the employers role in ensuring
graduates have the essential employability skills they deem necessary. Although there
may be opportunity to apply the findings and information in variety of situations, these
questions will focus on the employers directly connected to the Advertising and
Marketing Communications Management program at St. Lawrence College. This project
will strive to answer the following:
1. What essential employability skills (EES) as defined by the provincial
government are not being met currently through the curriculum at St. Lawrence
College?
2. Why is the current model not working?

3. Whose responsibility is it to address any gaps: faculty, students or employers
hiring students and graduates?
4. What are the employer's roles in ensuring graduates obtain the essential
employability skills they require (if any)?
5. What does the research suggest in terms of improving the model?
Theoretical Framework
Using a qualitative approach, this project will ground itself with learning theory,
human capital theory, cognitive-experiential self-theory, triarchic theory, conflict theory,
and matching theory.
The documented mismatch between graduate skills and employer's needs falls
within Matching Theory (Mortensen & Pissarides, 1994), whereas the discussion of
whose responsibility it is to address this mismatch relates to Human Capital Theory
(Becker, 19964). Becker stated that governments should be responsible for developing
human capital as a vital component of knowledge based economies as part of his Human
Capital Theory (Culkin & Mallick, 2011). This became further developed to include the
necessity of post-secondary institutions to partner and collaborate with governments in
the development of EES if growth and innovation were truly the drivers for producing an
educated workforce (NESTA, NCGE & CIHE, 2008). Undefined roles such as that
between government, employers and educational institutions pertain to Conflict Theory
(Brown, Hesketh & Williams, 2003). These undefined roles are creating an ongoing
debate of power, opportunity and capital-labour conflict when discussing EES
(Selvadurai, Choy & Maros, 2012).

An additional theory related to this study is the Cognitive-Experiential Self-
Theory (CEST) (Epstein, 1994). Epstein provides a framework for understanding
workplaces on or off campus that are outside of a traditional classroom that contribute to
student employability skills development regardless of their program of study. The
important component of CEST is that these learning environments succeed because of the
merger of both a rational system and an emotional driven system within each student
(Chisholm, Harris, Northwood & Johrendt, 2009). These authors suggest that we seek to
rationalize EES through traditional on-campus program delivery such as lecture oriented
classes as opposed to accept and develop models that support the emotional, off campus
development of EES simply because they are easier to manage. The CEST theory
combined with the Triarchic Theory (Sternberg, 1985) are the centre of the discussion on
experiential learning and how it overlaps with teaching EES. Triarchic Theory is the
exploration of originality, novelty and innovation as they focus on embedding aspects
related to work-based learning in a post-secondary program.
Finally, the findings of this study may touch on Experiential Learning Theory
(ELT) as a necessity in teaching EES; in particular problem solving, analysis and critical
thinking skills (Kolb, 1984). In general, this study will most certainly contribute to
Learning Theory, as it will discuss how the advertising student community learns best
and under what situations (Wenger, 1998).
Delineations
There is a great deal of room for discussion regarding the intersection of EES,
post-secondary education and labour market entry – too much for one project to cover. In
order to deal with this abundance the following delineations were established:

 This study will not challenge nor discuss the validity of the current list of EES
mandated by the government to post-secondary institutions;
 This study will be from the employers perspective and therefore surely leave
questions and room for discussion if the same questions were studied from a
student's perspective or an institutional perspective; and
 The research questions relate to achieving higher retention of EES, but may
overlook or not be suitable when applied with a pedagogically lens within each
program of study.
Remainder of the Study: A Roadmap
This project will follow a traditional social science applied research project
format beginning with a literature review of materials that are related to EES, post-
secondary curriculum and methods of instruction for advertising programs, employer
perspectives regarding hiring new graduates and most importantly identify the gaps that
exist within the current body of research.
The third chapter of this study will outline the methodology for the qualitative
primary research component of the study which includes semi-structured, open-ended
employer interviews with three specific target subject groups, as well as details the
formats for data coding and analysis.
Following the chapter on methodology, chapter four will present the primary
research findings. The final chapter will discuss both the primary and secondary research,
present implications of these findings and provide recommendations for further
investigation.

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature
Post-secondary institutions are increasingly under pressure to produce graduates
with transferable skills in response to the ever-changing needs of today's workplace
(Andrews & Higson, 2008). There are three primary criticisms that McIntyre, Webb and
Hit (2005) encapsulate in regards to the higher education (HE) industry: poor pedagogy,
lack of faculty commitment, and most importantly lack of responsiveness to broader
public needs (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). With these criticisms at the forefront of discussion
it is important to evaluate education, in particular, communications-related programs with
the intention to develop improved, alternative methods of teaching both the technical
skills required within the industry and transferable skills that may be required for any
entry-level position (Hazdovac, 2012). The new imperative will be creating learning
opportunities for students that provide a realistic work-related experience that bridges the
gap between schools today and the workplaces of tomorrow (Kessels & Kwakman,
2006). The question is how do we get there?
Essential Employability Skills
The job market is a competitive place; in many industries there are more
graduates seeking employment than there are positions (Brown et al., 2003). When a
vacancy is posted there may be thousands of technically qualified applicants thus leaving
the hiring organization to evaluate the candidates on personal transferable skills rather
than the candidate’s technical skills – and this trend is growing (Baker, 2009). Over two
thirds of graduate postings are open to graduates of any discipline suggesting that
technical skills are less important than transferability (Raybould et al., 2005). When
formal skilled training is equal among candidate’s employers will always favour job

applicants that demonstrate transferable and practical skills (Mason et al., 2009).
In response to this growing trend, the Province of Ontario has mandated that
every graduate from an accredited Ontario College must demonstrate essential
employability skills in the following six areas: communication, numeracy, critical
thinking and problem solving, information management, interpersonal skills and personal
skills; regardless of the students program of study ( Ministry of Training, Colleges and
Universities, 2003). Higher education institutions worldwide are under enormous
pressure from all levels of government to adopt and drive the employability agenda
(Culkin et al., 2011). This agenda, derived from the Dearing Report (Dearing, 1997),
stated that students need life skills not just technical skills for employment. The manner
in which these life skills are accomplished and to what standard they are completed varies
widely from institution to institution, program to program. Initially, piecemeal methods of
teaching EES were used, but over the last decade a diverse array of opportunities has
been utilized in the classroom as more information on best practices of teaching EES
becomes readily available (Harvey, 2005).
Since the Dearing Report, the belief and endorsement for EES development has
been re-iterated and continuously discussed as a timely manner (NESTA et al,. 2008).
There is a global consensus of the significant negative financial impact from skills gaps
in the labour market, but the true costs are actually unknown (Stuckey et al., 2013).
Developed countries such as Canada have increasingly been introducing policies to
enhance employability through educational initiatives with their GDP in mind (Little,
2003).

The development of EES are a global concern, not just of local policy interest.
Employers' opinions of the required skills when hiring new graduates were homogenous
from country to country in an EES study conducted by Andrews and Higson (2008), even
when the job candidate’s skills varied significantly in each country. Yet, after surveying
over 1,500 employers in the Conference Board’s recent report, solutions to prevent an
imminent skills crisis remain vague and undefined (Stuckey et al., 2013).
Conflict between mandated EES and what graduates demonstrate
Regardless of the mandated demonstration of essential employability skills there
is still a significant gap between the skills of graduates and the skills that employers need
(Hills, Robertson, Walker, Adey & Nixon, 2003). The gaps recently identified by
employers related primarily to critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Stuckey et al.,
2013). Over 70% of the employers surveyed by Stuckey et al., communicated
deficiencies in essential skills (2013). Selvadurai (2012), Andrews (2008), and Stuckey
(2013) all concluded that there is an ongoing mismatch between employers’ expectations
and the trainees’ skills regardless of the purported employability agenda. The Ontario
Chamber of Commerce reported that within their membership 21%-52% of employers
are continue to experience difficulties hiring someone with the right skill set (Stuckey et
al., 2013). The challenge is in understanding these gaps.
There are various arguments that attempt to explain the conflict between employer
expectations and graduate skills gaps but it has proven very hard to pin-point a set of
specific issues that could easily be addressed by stakeholders. In fact, there isn't even
consensus within a single organization of what the specific desirable skills and
expectations are when hiring new graduates (Harvey, 2005). There is also evidence that

suggests that in many cases employers still identify technical skills deficiencies as likely
to be a concern as are employability skills (Cranmer, 2006). The difference between when
EES are important and when technical skills are important may simply relate to industries
with identified skills shortage versus those with a skills surplus that create a hyper-
competitive marketplace.
There is a consensus that more integration of experiences that resemble the world
of work is required within education to address the EES agenda (Hills et al., 2003), but
how this could best be accomplished remains undeveloped. There is unanimity between
employers and academia that both sides are sometimes at odds with each other about
graduate skills needs and the best way to develop those needs (Harvey, 2005). Further
understanding of exactly what gaps employers perceive exist of newly recruited
graduates is required before solutions can be found (Mason et al., 2009).
To complicate things further, there is little to no evidence that proves simply
teaching, learning or assessing EES significantly impacts the labour market more so than
the status quo (Mason et al., 2009).
Advertising Communications programs in HE
The dichotomy between time constraints within course curriculum and the
importance of industry experience for graduating students can be problematic (Deemer,
2012). Advertising is a difficult subject to teach as it requires both theory and hands-on
industry experience to teach the expected EES in the field (Lei, 1991). The advertising
industry is riddled with uncertainty coupled with sometimes unforgivable expectations
relating to the industry standard of real-time responses to problems; therefore the
education system preparing the labour force for this industry has to replicate this

environment for its students to learn from (Peterson & Albertson, 2006). If producing
communications graduates with high levels of self-efficacy, competence and problem
solving skills is the goal, then the way in which it is taught will need to change to
incorporate the development of these skills (Pollack & Lilly, 2008). Instilling the
combination of technical industry knowledge for communications and transferable
workplace skills requires more intuitive based learning that doesn't come easily from a
traditional lecture format (Laverie, 2006).
Advertising programs, and even general business programs, arguably are
developing technical specialists who have a said expertise in a subject matter, but lack
cross-disciplinary skills. These cross-disciplinary skills will help develop leaders that
understand and have the ability to work collaboratively with various cross-function teams
that are quickly becoming the mainstream reality in business today (Holtzman, Stewart &
Barr, 2008).
Applied colleges have the purpose to lead students from theory to
conceptualization to practice, but they often fall short of the practice component (Stretch
& Harp, 1991). In order to address this shortfall a concentrated effort and innovation in
teaching is required to develop the EES that employers covet. Client-centred work is not
new for advertising programs; an experiential learning component has been part of
advertising programs since these programs were first offered in post-secondary
institutions. In 1923, realistic practice was cited within the top 18 critical aspects of a
proper advertising education (Hyde, 1927). In 1985, sixty years after Hyde’s report, the
Commission on Undergraduate Public Relations Education reported that practicums were
the number one course for public relations and communications (Maben, 2010).

There is the notion amongst practitioners that the communication HE industry is
more talk than action when it comes to delivering on both technical skills development
and employability skills development (Carson, Cromie, McGowan, & Hill, 1995).
Practitioners commonly believe that communication faculty members are disconnected
from the industry and therefore have been and will continue to be deficient in preparing
graduates with the right balance of skills required to join and succeed within the
marketing communication industry (Maclaran, McGowan, & Hill, 1997).
Marketing communication faculty members would argue that they are current
within industry and do so by leading service-based learning and work-based learning
opportunities for their students. Over 80% of marketing faculty according to McIntyre et
al.'s findings (2005) engage in real-life clients as a teaching method. There has been a
significant shift in delivery methods with an increase in student engagement in the
learning process in the last decade (Smart & Csapo, 2007).
Addressing the mismatch and closing the gap
The Conference Board of Canada recently reported the urgency of the
aforementioned skills gap and the need for better partnerships between the private sector
and post-secondary institutions to solve this issue together (Stuckey et al., 2013). They
recommend that internships, co-ops and apprenticeships are ways for the private sector to
help minimize the existing gaps. The Board’s recommendations for post-secondary
educators and institutions however are inconclusive; suggesting that educators should
simply “better align their programs to the needs of the economy” (Stuckey et al., 2013).
Is program alignment really the issue, or is it skills development within the programs that
is the issue? Monroe and Stuckey suggest that the government’s role to solve these gaps

is to provide more funding for experiential learning opportunities for students. Are they
referring to funding internships and apprenticeships or are there other methods to
accomplish this?
Employers, institutions and graduates all agree that the first step in addressing the
skills shortage is relationship building between all stakeholders (Stuckey et al., 2013).
Experiential learning as a way to address EES shortages
“The primary source of learning to lead, to the extent that leadership can be
learned, is experience...Yet until recently we have known relatively little about how to
effectively use experience for development, including what experiences are
developmental, what people might learn from them, why some people learn and others
don't, who to give what experiences to, and so forth.” (McCall, 2004). Hands-on
engagement enables learning to happen in an industry environment that inherently
develops job-ready skills, behaviours and attitudes (Stuckey et al., 2013). Students learn
best from direct industry experience (Stretch et al., 1991); passive learning is no longer
enough to teach the complex problem solving and real-time thinking required by industry
(Munoz & Huser, 2008). Deep learning occurs when students have the opportunity to
apply theories and concepts taught in class to real-life situations and then most
importantly analyze their results (Holtzman et al., 2008). The traditional lecture is quickly
becoming a method of the past (Peterson et al., 2006), and there's no clear consensus on
the model of delivering EES learning outcomes that will replace the lecture method
altogether (Scribner, Baker & Howe, 2003).
Students find that work-based projects are more intellectually challenging and
provide opportunity for open-ended learning that cannot be simulated in classroom

learning with artificial projects (Khan, 2013). It is believed that many EES are best taught
in workplace environments and not in the classroom (Mason et al., 2009); however
developing these authentic work experiences for students is a challenge. The educational
worth of these experiences is not well understood; nor is there a concrete answer for how
to integrate these experiences within HE curriculums (Billet, 2009).
Table 1: Key Principles and their application in differing HE areas
Principle Foundation Undergraduate subject Undergraduate Job
Placements x x x
Work experience x
Integrative x x
Context x x
Structured simulation x x
Projects x
Problem based tasks x
Reflective practice x
PDP's and e-portfolios x
Skill mapping x x
Collaborative x x
Employer engagement x x
Stakeholder engagement x x
Note. From “Review of Evidence of Best Practice in Teaching and Assessing Employa-
bility Skills.” By A. Nunn, 2008, pg 78.
There are many experiential learning models for teaching in HE; the key
characteristic of experiential learning is that students are encouraged to be reflective
practitioners (Nunn, 2008). Reflection and analysis requires the student to demonstrate
their learning through means such as presentations, e-portfolios, or personal development
plans. Simply involving industry employers into the classroom as guest speakers can add
to the learning process of students and at the same time start bridging the gap between the
world of work and the HE institution (Wye & Lim, 2009). The type of experiential

learning activity varies based on the HE level and the program requirements. Nunn
(2008) summarized in Table 1 an example of experiential learning methods appropriate at
each level or activity in HE.
Table 2: Criteria for evaluating experiential learning opportunities
Does the learning and teaching activity:
A. Develop and encourage skills, knowledge and understanding?
B. Develop and encourage skills, knowledge and understanding that
will be useful in the world of work?
C. Provide an opportunity to apply the skills, knowledge and
increased understanding in the context of the world of work?
D. Demonstrate effective planning, design, progression and
implementation of the activity?
Note. From Hills, J.M., Robertson, G.G., Walker, R.R., Adey, M.A., & Nixon, I.I. (2003).
Bridging the Gap Between Degree Programme Curricula and Employability
Through Implementation of Work-related Learning. Teaching In Higher Educa-
tion, 8(2), 211.
When assessing employability skills taught through experiential learning, Knight
and Yorke (2007) found similar methods to Nunn (2008) with the addition of peer
assessments. Students believe that any form of workplace related learning is an important
part of HE, in particular, within a college setting (Stuckey et al., 2013). Peterson et al.'s
(2006) study found that students reported the same positive experience from work-based
training opportunities. “This learning by doing hands-on project has been one of the most
influential in my college career. I wish more of my teachers supplied me with hands-on
projects that enabled me to learn outside of the classroom” reported one of the
participants in Peterson’s study. Overall, first job advantage is seen for graduates that
have had the longest work-related experiences and had the most direct contact with
employers in related industries (Santiago, 2010). This holds true within the marketing
communications industry as well (Benigni et al., 2004).

Hills et al., (2003) developed a set of criteria to evaluate experiential learning
opportunities that may be helpful when choosing a model to teach EES (See Table 2 for
the Criteria for evaluating experiential learning opportunities).
Cooperative work placements and Internships. As the case for authentic work-
based learning environment strengthens so does the belief that cooperative work
placements in HE are a suitable solution (Kessels et al., 2006). To support the furtherance
of internships and cooperative placements there is a growing trend with employers to
show hiring preference for candidates that have successfully completed one or more
work-based experiences (Harvey, 2005). Graduates are experiencing a similar positive
effect: graduates that sought employment after completing a placement versus students
that didn't have placement experience were 14% more likely to succeed than their in-
experienced peers and even higher results in business related programs (Harvey, 2005;
Mason et al., 2009). An argument against work placements and internships is that they
are time consuming within a program of study (Miner, 2010), in turn delaying labour
force entry which can be detrimental for some industries experiencing a skills shortage.
To enhance and incorporate the principles of experiential education, placements
should take place in the early segments of education as opposed to the traditional time
frame adopted in most HE programs which falls near the end. This early introduction to
work-based experiences allows time for students to debrief and analyze the experience;
contributing to the theory of deep learning (Stuckey et al., 2013). Employers on the other
hand, often prefer non-returning students as placement students over students that have to
return to their studies as it is less disruptive to the daily routine.

Placements provide an in-depth learning experience for the workplace culture of
an organization. Similar to on-campus advertising agency models of delivery, internships
and placements help students develop leadership skills, oral and written communication
skills, problem solving skills, interpersonal communication skills, teamwork, decision-
making skills, and planning skills – all of which are part of the EES (Ogbeide, 2006).
Placements and internships provide learning associated and specific to one concentrated
environment, which although beneficial for focused learning, they can be seen as limiting
when compared to other experiential learning opportunities that are rich with several
clients and several problems to solve (Laverie, 2006). Hazdovac's (2012) findings, that
included interviews with faculty and communication industry experts, were consistent
with Laverie's and that are summed up by Jennifer Saxon, an advertising industry expert
in Hazdovac’s study “...because I’ve seen a number of different internships at a few
different firms and the ones (students) that have been given the most responsibility still
aren’t given ownership of a client campaign… I don’t think most internships will give
students the same degree of experience as the firm (agency model) will”. On top of this
argument against internships and placements, institutions often struggle with finding
opportunities that provide enough supervision and support that enables the student to use
the opportunity for learning as well as simply experience (Santiago, 2010).
On-campus advertising agencies. Many HE institutions currently use a blended
model of classroom delivery that encompasses both traditional lecture-based learning and
experiential learning environments. In many cases there is a combination of delivery
modes including embedded in the curriculum and outside of the classroom opportunities
that are presented in order to address the employability agenda (Mason et al., 2009). In

the United States (there is currently no Canadian organizing body for on-campus
advertising agencies to reference) there are currently 100 student-run advertising and
public relations firms within post-secondary institutions (PRSSA, 2013). From an
institutional point of view, programs utilizing an agency model have been able to meet
the program learning outcomes on reduce budgets, higher student enrolment and greater
graduate employability (Swanson, 2011). An agency model alleviates many deficiencies
in delivering on the employability agenda by putting the emphasis on experience over
learning (Deemer, 2012). They also fill the EES gaps left out in campaigns courses or the
technical skill application gaps left out in internships (Gibson & Rowden, 1995). Bush
(2009) asserts that agencies provide a plethora of pedagogical benefits that are so deep
that an agency should be at the core of every marketing communication program.
In contrast, Parson and Lepkowska-White (2009) conducted a study comparing
two groups of marketing student projects to determine the effectiveness of using real
clients versus theoretical clients. The study concluded that from a student perspective the
theoretical projects were just as effective and provided a less stressful learning
environment; faculty observed that learning outcomes were adequate in both cases. What
wasn't measured in this study however was the employer's perspective or the
development of EES in both groups of students.
According to Peterson et al., there is no better method of teaching the intricacies
of the marketing communication industry than through an on-campus agency (2006). A
campaigns course is a course focused on a grade; whereas an agency is a workplace
focused on employability (Maben, 2010). Clients bring challenges that cannot be
foreseen nor replicated in a classroom setting (Swanson, 2011) and because of this there

has been unmatched observed and documented psychological differences in student’s
essential skills (Aldoory & Wrigley, 2000). Students learn leadership skills, how to
motivate employees, negotiating with clients (Bush, 2009); all while gaining confidence
(Aldoory et al., 2000). Working with a variety of clients provides a variety of learning
situations that would be hard to replicate through any other form of experiential learning
(Laverie, 2006). Lastly, agencies are less focused on task completion such is seen with
internships, less on getting the answer right as is seen with traditional classroom
assessment methods, and instead more focused on process and analysis which are
embedded components of EES (Hazdovac, 2012). Based on Maben's (2010)
recommendation that an agency structure should be more widely adopted by marketing
communication programs, more research needs to be done about agencies as an
experiential learning model for teaching EES (Swanson, 2011).
There is an on-going debate about the best method to teach EES as the related
pedagogues are still in their infancy (Harvey, 2000; Brodie & Irving, 2007). Institutions
and employers can't wait for the debate to be over; in the meantime the focus should be
on making sure EES are taught at some point, through some experiential learning
modality within HE. This needs to happen in the near future as the human capital crisis is
imminent (Stuckey et al., 2013).
Graduates Role
Students have unfortunately developed a lop-sided skill set; deriving from their
ability to coast through elementary and secondary school programs based solely on
technical skills with weak EES performances in many cases (Stuckey et al., 2013).
Students will have to work hard in post-secondary school to develop and record their EES

development if they are going to expect any level of success in their future. Learning is a
continuous process that cannot be established in an isolated event (Billet, 2009); students
need to capture their entire learning process as they develop through it. Graduates must
play an active role in their EES development before they enter the labour market as these
skills will only be achieved with a high level of engagement from the learner (Billet,
2009). Students learn best when they discuss, practice and apply theories, as well as
merge their own ideas and solutions to real-life problems (Smart et al., 2007; Davis,
1993). The good news is that graduates are keen and want to be engaged in their own
development (Munoz et al., 2008).
More likely than not, graduates will find themselves in a starting position that is
non-traditional, non-technical and may not even be post-secondary graduate level; it is
the role of the graduate to accept, expect and use their EES to capitalize on these
opportunities as a start to life-long learning (Harvey, 2000). This starts with graduates
being responsible for their own EES development throughout HE and beyond (Culkin et
al., 2011); which may include finding their own job while in school if an appropriate
work-related learning experience isn't embedded within their program of study (Kessels
et al., 2006). Students may need mentorship and guidance to seek out and select work that
develops their EES as opposed to their natural inclination of simply working for money
alone (Harvey, 2000).
Institutional Role
The primary role of HE has changed very little over the years and still has the
primary objective of preparing young labours for the world of work (Harvey, Moon &
Geall, 1997). This role however, is challenged with the opinion that the employability

agenda will steer HE towards training over education where critique plays a crucial role
(Harvey, 2000). Harvey counters his own argument to say that HE's role in EES
development is about being responsive not about being downgraded (2000).
Most colleges strive to be a good learning college; St. Lawrence College included
(MacDougall, 2012). A learning college must do more than put such a statement on paper,
it must inspire deep learning that provides students with opportunities to be intrinsically
rewarded for developing the skills required by industry – grades are not the answer to this
(Holtzman et al., 2008). Developing a learning college also means sharing control with
students and industry employers which is a moderately new concept in HE (Smart et al.,
2007).
Addressing the employability agenda within HE is often left up to the individual
faculty members or departments (Nunn, 2008). Institutions as a whole, not in part, must
strive to develop learning environments that are more hands-on and practical in nature
(Wye et al., 2009). Culkin and Mallick (2011) have developed a priority list for HE
institutions regarding the employability agenda as seen in Figure 1. Some argue that
institutions are behind in developing the experiential learning environments needed to
address the EES gaps, while Vu, Rigby, Wood and Anne argue that HE institutions have
made significant gains in both policy and delivery modes to address employer’s needs
(2011). This is an on-going process that requires constant assessment and adjustments to
program curriculum that best reflects the needs of the current economy at any given
moment (Stuckey et al., 2013).

Figure 1: HE priorities in relation to the employability agenda
Note. From Culkin, N., & Mallick, S. (2011). Producing work-ready graduates. Interna-
tional Journal Of Market Research, 53(3), 347-368. doi:10.2501/IJMR-53-3-347-368.
The imperative for institutions is in resource planning as it pertains to the
employability agenda. HE institutions, upon understanding their role with EES
development, will be able to redirect resources from traditional lecture-based classroom
initiatives to experiential-based, employer involved learning initiatives (Cranmer, 2006).
Part of this resource planning must include professional development and upgrading
opportunities for faculty as new models that incorporate experiential learning may be
outside of the current faculty's skill set (Nunn, 2008). Faculty should not only be inspired
to be up-to-date with the current state of their industry, but should be helping to lead the
direction of its future (Ogbeide, 2006). New funding models for HE institutions are
moving in this direction as well, supporting and rewarding programs of study that
produce work-ready graduates (Bridgstock, 2009). The last, yet vital component related
to resource planning is the requirement for institutions to be flexible to new routines and

structures that may suit work-based learning more appropriately; this could include
varied timetables, room allocation differences, or a change in operating hours for services
(Nunn, 2008).
Developing relationships with industry employers is not an add-on, but rather a
crucial component in addressing the employability agenda (Junghagen, 2005). It is
important that the employers’ views are heard (Stuckey et al., 2013) as they provide a
different perspective of the industry than those that are many years removed from it such
as HE faculty members often are (Nunn, 2008). These relationships lead to easier work-
based learning opportunities for students and a source of industry information for faculty
members. The source of information for faculty enables them to be aware and respond to
current industry needs through real-time curriculum development (Junghagen, 2005).
Employers are keen to be involved (Stuckey et al., 2013) and significant innovations
incorporating private and public partnerships are being developed in hopes to better
conceptualize, design and deliver on the employability agenda (Nunn, 2008).
The primary role for institutions within the employability agenda may solely rest
on communication. Communicating with employers regarding industry needs and how
their graduates can meet those needs may be the only thing currently missing (Vu et al.,
2011).
Employers Role
In some cases employers are hiring general business graduates over industry-
specific graduates with the belief that they are more likely to possess the desirable EES
skills while it will be easier to teach them the technical skills (Ogbeide, 2006). Employers
support the labour-development argument for HE institutions simply because they don't

have the time or resources to undertake their own workforce skills development anymore
(Stuckey et al., 2013). Employers however, have a lagging impression of graduate skills;
they continue to assume that HE remains focused on technical skills. There does seem to
be some new support surfacing for hiring new graduates based on the efforts being
directed towards the employability agenda (Harvey, 2005).
Employers in general seem to favour work experience when hiring new graduates
(Harvey, 2005). In cases where employers were directly involved in course design and
ensuring student work-based opportunities graduates experienced greater success in
finding employment. This suggests that employer involvement in developing EES within
institutions is critical for employability (Cranmer, 2006). Not only will the graduates and
institutions benefit from this relationship, employers themselves will benefit by
developing a better workforce for them to draw upon in the future (Mason, 2009).
It is crucial for graduate success that employers are directly involved in
developing courses, delivery methods and methods for assessment as these employers are
the most direct evaluators of graduate performance through whom they choose to hire
(Wye et al., 2009). Employers time is more constrained and their financial resources are
being directed away from employee development (Stuckey et al., 2013), therefore they
will need to rely and in turn support HE institutions focus on EES development. Most
importantly, employers must take responsibility and play a leadership role in closing the
EES gap in new labour market entrants (Mason et al., 2009); but to what extent remains
unclear.

Literature Review Summary
There has been a great deal of discussion related to EES over the last decade;
however, for the most part the arguments have been general, non-descript, or overly
simplistic (Chisholm et al., 2009). The focus of the current discussions has centred on
students and institutional perspectives, with very little commentary from the employer's
perspective (Selvadurai et al., 2012).
Based on increased tuition fees, students are now expecting more from their HE
experiences: they want high quality, relevant information that is delivered in a method
that not only meets the graduate outcomes but the employer expectations as well. All in
the hopes that they are job-ready when they get their diploma in hand (Culkin et al.,
2011).
Junghagen (2005) summed up the only truly agreed upon constant for addressing
the EES gaps “Research, education, and collaboration with industry should not be treated
as asynchronous individual tasks. There are so many synergies among the tasks that they
should co-evolve over time.”

Chapter Three: Methodology and Procedures
The literature review points to employer-involved experiential learning as a
possible improvement to the current models; utilizing a mixed method research approach
will challenge this theory and hypotheses. Using a qualitative approach, the
interpretations will shed light and provide an initial understanding of the unique
challenges employers’ experience when hiring new graduates.
As stated in Chapter 1, this project will strive to answer the following:
1. What essential employability skills (EES) as defined by the provincial
government are not being met currently through the curriculum at St.
Lawrence College?
3. Whose responsibility is it to address any gaps: faculty, students or
employers hiring students and graduates?
4. What is the employer's role in ensuring graduates obtain the essential
employability skills they require (if any)?
Question one relates to Becker's Human Capital Theory (1964). Question two will be
grounded with Mortensen and Pissarides' Matching Theory (1994) and Conflict Theory
(Brown et al., 2003). Questions three and four overlap in their relation to Conflict Theory
and Human Capital Theory. Question four and five are grounded with cognitive-
experiential self-theory (CEST) (Epstein, 1994), Triarchic Theory (Sternberg, 1985),
experiential learning theory (ELT) and Learning Theory (Wenger, 1998).

This applied research project is based on action research (Lewin, 1946) in that the
findings will provide value to St. Lawrence College and to employers of SLC graduates.
Research Methodology
Using a triangulated approach (Schumacher and MacMillan, 1993, p. 498), this
project built first upon the findings in the literature review, to develop then compare and
contrast common belief within the literature to its’ primary research findings.
The primary research instrument was interviews to determine if there was a causal
relationship between the variables. Choosing interviews as the main action of research
enabled the investigation to cover many variables at one time that would otherwise be
difficult to do in a field experiment type methodology. The interviews were semi-
structured, open-ended survey style events. Interview based surveying was chosen based
on Lo Biondo-Wood and Haber's (1994) belief that survey studies are a strong foundation
for exploratory, descriptive studies that have a need to be both quantified and qualified.
Participant Population(s)
The target population for the primary research component was employers with
either a connection to SLC or a potential for a connection to SLC. There are three distinct
stratified sample groups within this project: current employers and placements
supervisors of the St. Lawrence College advertising students (sample group 1 – SG1);
past employers and placements supervisors of the St. Lawrence College advertising
students (sample group 2 – SG2); and employers that have a need for advertising
graduates or interns but have never hired St. Lawrence College advertising students
(sample group 3 – SG3). Initially there were five participants from each sample group
identified through systematic sampling.

Research Design and Instrumentation
The interviews were divided into two parts. Part A related to employer
experiences and their role in developing EES; this part started by presenting the EES as
mandated by the ministry and explaining that for the purposes of this project this was a
non-negotiable framework. Part B introduced the current approach for teaching EES at
St. Lawrence College (if they were unfamiliar) and presented current models for teaching
EES at other institutions as determined within the literature review. The interviews were
continuous events, with only a minor break in between Part A and Part B.
The interviews took place over two days prior to fall semester, proceeding the
summer semester when most students and graduates are employed. The following were
the initial questions to be asked:
SG1 & SG2
PART A
1. What are the essential employability skills (EES) you most look for when hiring a
recent graduate?
2. How do the graduates you have hired from the SLC advertising program meet
those EES?
3. What are the EES shortfalls you have experienced with SLC graduates?
4. Can you describe what you believe is the best way for students to obtain EES?
5. As an employer, what do you see your role as in relation to teaching EES?
PART B
6. What is not working with the current method for teaching EES at SLC?
7. Describe aspects of the other models that appeal to you for teaching EES.

SG3
PART A
1. What are the essential employability skills (EES) you most look for when hiring a
recent graduate?
2. Why have you never hired St. Lawrence College advertising students?
3. What are the EES shortfalls you anticipate with SLC graduates?
4. Can you describe what you believe is the best way for students to obtain EES?
5. As an employer, what do you see your role as in relation to teaching EES?
PART B
6. What is not working with the current method for teaching EES at St. Lawrence
College?
7. Describe aspects of the other models that appeal to you for teaching EES.
8. What changes to the teaching of EES would need to be made to meet your needs
and lead to potentially hiring SLC graduates in the future?
Data Collection and Recording
The interviews were audio recorded in real time and observational notes taken
during the interview. These recordings were transcribed into note form for coding.
Data Processing and Analysis
The content from the transcriptions was coded (See Appendix B for the Complete
Code Book) using first cycle descriptive code and second cycle coding (Saldaña, 2008).
In some instances where a direct quote was appropriate to be included in whole an in vivo

code was applied. Additional to content analysis, a sentiment analysis of the code was
also conducted to determine not only popularity of content but rather the sentiment of the
participant voice. The analysis was done to determine patterns of similarity, difference,
frequency, and / or causation. Where possible, during the analysis, analytical induction
and data reduction were utilized. Atlas.ti, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis
software tool, was used for systematic analysis of the audio files and transcriptions.
Limitations
There were two limitations to this study: time and sample group. The timing to
conduct interviews could affect the outcome of the answers based on memory of
experience; if the hiring of graduates had long since passed or if it was too new to tell the
answers may be inaccurate. Timing also played a part in who was available for
interviewing as many employers take holidays during the summer months, therefore
those that participated were not all from our first to call target sample.
SG3 has inherent limitations stemming from the initial stratification. There could
be a large array of variables contributing to why SG3 employers have not hired SLC
graduates including reasons not pertaining to EES. During the interview, if non-related
information was provided this was coded as deviant to the norm and removed from the
analysis. Lastly, this target population was created based on previous knowledge and
experience of the researcher. There may have been more important or pivotal employers
if students, faculty or employers themselves were made aware of this study and had the
opportunity to contribute contacts for the study. This limitation leads to opportunities for
future study.

Ethical Considerations
The ethical considerations in this project were negligible. During the interviews
there was a potential that participants would feel anxious or shy about having their
comments audio recorded. Participants had the option to decline comment or
participation at any point if they felt uncomfortable. They were given a description of the
project, expectations of participation, and methods for opting out and confidentiality,
during the solicitation phase. These details were also included in their participation kit
along with their consent form (See Appendix C for the Consent Form). These forms,
interview questions and the research process were approved through an Ethics Review
Board at Cape Breton University (See Appendix D for the Ethics Review Application and
Ethics Board Approval).
All digital files pertaining to confidential aspects of this project were encrypted
with a password login system to ensure limited digital transferability of data. Audio files
were transferred to an encrypted file and the original file deleted.
Pilot Studies
To ensure that the reactive bias was minimized, feedback was gathered from
industry experts that included an employer not involved in the sample group, a faculty
member at St. Lawrence College within the Advertising program and a research
specialist. These experts completed the interview questions in survey format and
provided commentary and recommendations for improving question clarity prior to
conducting the full study.

Based on the pilot study the following changes were made before conducting the
sample group interviews:
 In your experience with hiring graduates, did the graduates meet your
expected level of EES was added as a question to Part A.
 Question 4 was broken down into two parts: who should develop EES and
how should EES be developed.
 Demographic information was collected about each participant for
additional analysis (age range, size of firm, industry, sector, and role). A
general observation of gender was noted at the time of the interview.
 The question “As an employer, what do you see your role as in relation to
teaching EES?” was changed to read “As an employer, what do you see
your role should be in developing EES?”.

Chapter Four: Presentation of Results
Employers are seeing EES shortfalls when hiring new graduates, both from the
SLC advertising graduates and with other graduates. The challenge, as stated by the
participant employers, is whether or not these shortfalls are teachable; if they are
teachable how best to teach them; and most importantly whose role is it to teach these
EES. Through interviewing eleven employers of new graduates, this study shed light on
some of these challenges.
Data Analysis Process
Using a thematic approach, analytical induction and data reduction were applied to
move from the comprehensive transcribed interviews to determine patterns. These initial
patterns, combined with the a priori codes, lead to hierarchical codes assigned for data
analysis. The code book consisted of the a priori codes (See Appendix E for the A Priori
Codes) based on themes established in the literature review as well as data-derived
inductive codes created dynamically throughout the data coding phase (See Appendix B
for the Complete Codes Used).
The Employer Participants
Initially the project estimated that fifteen participant interviews would be
conducted; however, the study concluded with only eleven due to saturation. Saturation
was determined through the inductive code process at the point that no new codes were
necessary. This pattern was apparent during the coding of the tenth interview; an eleventh
interview was conducted to ensure that this was not an anomaly. Neither the tenth nor the
eleventh interviews instigated the need for new codes, therefore leading to the
assumption of data saturation.

Of the eleven participants, ten were males. Ten of the eleven lived and worked in
Kingston. One was between 20-30 years of age, five were between 30-40 years of age,
three were between 40-50 years of age and two were between 50-60 years of age. All
three sectors were represented with one from the non-profit sector, eight from the private
sector and two from the public sector. Within the group there were five Chief Executive
Officers (CEO's), three supervisors and three communication officers. The sectors
included one association, two from broadcast media, one from health care, two from
marketing, one from real estate, two from technology and two from tourism. Four were
organizations with less than 10 employees, five were from organizations with 10-99
employees, and two were from large organizations over 100 employees (See Table 3 for
Characteristics of Participants). Each participant was assigned a participant (P) code to
ensure participant confidentiality. The P codes were assigned based on order of
interviews conducted ranging from P1-P11.
Table 3: Characteristics of Participants
Participant City Gender Age Role Sector Industry Size
P1 Kingston m 40-50 communications public tourism 100+
P2 Kingston m 30-40 supervisor private broadcast 10+
P3 Kingston m 50-60 supervisor private broadcast 10+
P4 Toronto m 30-40 supervisor private marketing 10+
P5 Kingston m 30-40 CEO private technology <10
P6 Kingston m 40-50 CEO private technology <10
P7 Kingston f 20-30 communications private tourism 10+
P8 Kingston m 30-40 CEO private real estate 10+
P9 Kingston m 40-50 CEO non-profit association <10
P10 Kingston m 50-60 CEO private marketing <10
P11 Kingston m 30-40 communications public health care 100+

The participants were initially to be stratified into three sample groups: current
employers and placements supervisors of the St. Lawrence College advertising students
(sample group 1 – SG1); past employers and placements supervisors of the St. Lawrence
College advertising students (sample group 2 – SG2); and employers that have a need for
advertising graduates or interns but have never hired St. Lawrence College advertising
students (sample group 3 – SG3). Following the pilot study these sample groups were
stratified in a slightly different manor that was deemed more appropriate for
understanding results: SG1 represents employers that have hired SLC advertising
graduates; SG2 represents employers that have hired SLC advertising interns but not
graduates; and SG3 represents employers that have never hired SLC advertising
graduates or internships. Within SG3 further stratification was possible regarding those
employers that had hired any post-secondary graduates versus those that had not,
however for this study, this further stratification was deemed unnecessary (See Table 4
for the Sample Group Stratification).
Table 4: Sample Group (SG) Stratification
Participant
Subject
Group
(SG)
has hired SLC
advertising
grads
has hired
SLC
advertising
interns
has hired
other
graduates
has
hired
other
interns
3 1 yes yes yes yes
5 1 yes yes yes yes
7 1 yes yes yes yes
10 1 yes yes yes yes
1 2 no yes yes yes
9 2 no yes no yes
2 3 no no yes yes
4 3 no no no yes
6 3 no no no yes
8 3 no no yes yes
11 3 no no yes yes

The limitations for analysis of SG2 (n=4) as a stratified group created a doubt of
validity with only two participants in that group. To alleviate this doubt or concern, SG2
and SG3 were merged as SG3m (n=7) based on the similarity of both groups by the first
level of stratification that they had not hired SLC advertising graduates (See Table 5 for
the Revised Subject Group Stratification). This decision was determined by reviewing the
role of EES and its connection and expectation of graduates and not of interns; interns are
not expected to have met the EES prior to graduation.
Table 5: Revised Sample Group (SG) Stratification
Participant
SubjectGroup(SG)
RevisedSubject
Group(SG)
hashiredSLC
advertisinggrads
hashiredSLC
advertisinginterns
hashiredother
graduates
hashiredother
interns
3 1 1 yes yes yes yes
1 2 3m no yes yes yes
9 2 3m no yes no yes
2 3 3m no no yes yes
4 3 3m no no no yes
6 3 3m no no no yes
It is important to note that all of the participant employers that had not worked with
SLC advertising students stated that it was not due to lack of EES in the graduates, but
rather due to external factors such as that the employers had never received applications
from this group of students.

Thematic Analysis
Initially during the coding stage, general themes that matched that of the literature
review were developed; however those themes evolved as further analysis was complete.
The main themes that arose during the analysis were:
 That there are gaps not only when hiring new graduates for employers but
between employers’ desired skills and those they find shortfalls in when
hiring new graduates;
 Employers that have never worked with graduates from certain programs
still apply biases and pre-conceived challenges when hiring any new
graduate regardless of the program of study;
 The gaps that need to be addressed may not even be on the MTCU list of
EES;
 Student work should be ‘real work’;
 IF EES are teachable, school is not the place they should be taught; and
 Maybe EES are not even teachable skills.
Gaps are where the confusion starts. According to this study, graduates may have
a hard time meeting employers’ expectations due to contradictions in desirable EES when
hiring new graduates compared to their identified shortfalls in EES when employing new
graduates. Creative and innovative thinking, leadership and reflection were all EES that
employers cited having shortfalls and yet were never cited as desirable by any employers,
let alone by the employers that reported the shortfalls (See Figure 2 for Desirable EES
versus reported EES shortfalls). Additionally, grammar, drive, and time management
were cited similarly with shortfalls but not as desirable in the first place; however these

three skills were not the on the initial list of EES given to employers to drawn upon
which may have skewed their answers. SG1 reported having no desire for numeracy;
however, 50% cited a shortfall. Furthermore, SG3m cited a shortfall with leadership
skills, but showed no desire for it when selecting candidates. Based on all of these
contradictions, the first gap that may need to be addressed will be to ensure that
employers’ desirable skills when hiring are maintained and applied when assessing new
employee performance.
Figure 2: Desired EES versus reported EES shortfalls
Employer’s expectations of what their roles are in developing EES may be a
contributing factor to current gaps. The SG3m group prioritized their roles in the
following order: engagement in the HE learning process; providing experience for
students; and empathy for the new employee. The SG1 group on the other hand
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
general comm…
writing
listening
sub-total
gen critical thinking & ps…
decision making
sub-total
computer literacy
general inter p…
relationship mgmt
networking
general pers…
adaptability
personal responsibility
***time management
% of Employers Reporting on Topic
EES
shortfalls %
desired %

prioritized them differently starting with empathy for the new employee and ending with
engagement in the HE learning process. The combined groups prioritized them
experience, empathy then engagement (See Table 6 for the Prioritization of Employer
Roles).
Table 6: Prioritization of Employer Roles in Developing EES
ID
employer's roles
provide experience engagement with HE empathy
internships
jobs
projects
sub-total
advisorypanels
mentor
teach
speaker
sponsorship
sub-total
SG3m % 43 29 14 29 29 0 29 43 14 23 20
SG3m ranking 1 2 3 1 2 5 2 1 4 2 3
SG1 % 100 25 0 42 0 75 0 25 0 20 50
SG1 ranking 1 2 3 2 5 1 5 2 5 3 1
Pre-conceptions are leading to gaps. As stated previously, employers were
divided into groups with experience hiring SLC advertising students (SG1) and those that
hadn’t (SG3m). 86% of the SG3m group cited that they anticipated EES not to be met
when hiring new graduates; whereas the SG1 group had only experienced gaps in EES
25% of the time (See Figure 3 for the Gaps reported by SG Groups). SG3m anticipated
more shortfalls with information management and personal skills; while those with
experience with the SLC advertising graduates reported that the shortfalls were actually
numeracy skills. Within personal skills, 57% of SG3m cited drive as the number two

anticipated shortfall and yet 0% of SG1 reported having experienced shortfalls with drive
of new graduate employees.
Figure 3: SG Reported Gaps
What gaps need to be addressed? All SG groups when analyzed as groups and the
total (n=11) desire general communication more than any other EES and yet 55% cite
shortfalls within this category. Writing is in a similar position with 55% desiring skill
competency, with 45% citing a shortfall with writing specifically. The number one
desired EES for the SG3m group was managing self, which was matched as the number
one shortfall. Categorically, the two skill areas for graduates to develop according to
employer identified shortfalls are numeracy and personal skills. Communication should
not be overlooked however, as it was the category with highest desirability along with
significant shortfalls to overcome.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
generalcomm…
writing
listening
sub-total
gencriticalthinking&ps…
generalinfomgmt…
sub-total
teamwork
leadership
sub-total
managingself
reflective
***drive
%forEahSGthat
reportedShortfalls
EES Shortfalls
SG3m
SG1

Two significant gaps that are not detailed within the official EES as published by
the MTCU but were repeatedly cited by employers in this study are time management
and drive. In fact, 73% stated that the number one EES shortfall was time management.
SG1 cited time management and drive equally as the most significant shortfalls.
Grammar was another addition to the list of EES discussed, however only P9 stated it as
a shortfall.
What doesn’t need to be addressed is speaking skills according to the SG3m group;
SG1 desires reading skills but reported no shortfalls with reading. Other skills desired by
employers without reported shortfalls were teamwork, listening and relationship
management. These results indicate that speaking, listening, teamwork, relationship
management and reading skills are possibly being well developed among students
already. Overall, critical thinking had low desirability and minimal shortfalls suggesting
that employers may not expect those skills within early graduates; the question then is
can they really be considered EES? P3 believes that critical thinking and decision making
are skills that continue to develop on the job and are not expected skills when hiring new
graduates (See Appendix F for more quotes from participant interviews).
The gaps may be less skill specific and relate more to the quality or level of
development within each skill category. P2 commented that in their experience, new
graduates possess most EES but are generally “weaker than they are strong in their EES”
(See Appendix F for more quotes from participant interviews). This may explain why
those employers that stated new graduates they have hired had the required EES (n=4)
and yet still cited 14 EES shortfalls overall (See Table 7 for EES Shortfalls these
employers reported).

Table 7: EES shortfalls reported by employers that believe their new employees meet all
EES upon hiring
generalcommunicationskills
writing
generalnumeracy
generalcriticalthinking
&problemsolving
decisionmaking
generalpersonalskills
managingself
personalresponsibility
***timemanagement
1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
Can EES even be taught? An important question that became apparent in the
employer interviews was whether or not EES could even be taught, or if EES are internal
characteristics so individualized that outside factors will lead to unpredictable results.
P10 suggested that the EES shortfalls are more a self-directed, motivation problem, and
not a delivery mode or teaching problem. “It's as complex as managing a team of
employees that each have different strengths, so where would you even begin?” (See
Appendix F for more quotes from participant interviews).
Drive and time management repeatedly came up as a shortfall with 36% citing a
shortfall with drive specifically. One candidate, P8, was the first but not the only to state
the question “How do you teach drive?” (See Appendix F for more quotes from
participant interviews). 45% reported significant shortfalls with the managing self-skills,
these likewise to drive, may be too individualistic to be taught (See Figure 4 for
popularity of personal skill shortfalls reported by employers).

Figure 4: Personal Skill Shortfalls
Overall, 36% said they believed EES cannot be taught in the classroom alone. Most
believed that EES were developed best through ongoing experience, with 82% suggesting
that developing EES must be through self-directed learning. One participant, P6, deemed
that graduates that start out with a high degree of EES see little improvement to these
skills with gained experience and that the same was true for those with extremely low
EES; they argued that the development of EES will only be affective with those in the
middle. This begs the question then, are EES really required for first careers or should
employers accept that new graduates may not have all of the EES, but instead will
develop them in the workplace?
IF EES are teachable, school is not the place they should be taught. If EES are
teachable, then the study participants believe that the workplace is the place to develop
them, not school. Next to self-directed learning (82%), 45% of employers believe that
managing self
adaptability
reflective
personal responsibility
***drive
***time management

direct work experience will develop EES better than other methods such as school; and
82% believe that employers are the ones to teach them. Only 25% selected schools to
teach EES (See Table 8 for who employers believe should be teaching EES). Next to self-
directed learning and employers, parents were believed to play a more significant role
than schools in developing EES.
Table 8: Who should teach EES
employers
selfdirected
schools
gov't
parents
peers
community
general
elementary
highschool
HE
sub-total
% 82 73 9 18 27 45 25 9 27 9 9
Ranking 1 2 4 3 2 1 4 7 3 7 7
Some sort of schooling still has a role to play in developing EES according to six
participants. Within that group of six, most of which were within the SG1 group (n=3),
83% believed that HE was the most appropriate educational institution to teach EES (See
Table 9 for which schools should teach EES according to employers). This group (n=5)
favored internships as the method for teaching these skills over the group that did not see
HE (n=6) as a place to develop EES.

Table 9: Which schools should teach EES
general
elementary
highschool
HE
sub-total
SG3m 1 1
SG3m 1 1 2
SG1 1 1 2
SG1 1 1 2
SG1 1 1 1 3
SG1 1 1
Student Work should be Real Work. When employers were asked what they
believed would be the best methods for teaching EES they strongly supported work-based
learning above all other methods. 55% of participants preferred real-life work for
developing EES. P9 stated that HE institutions can teach a technical skill in the classroom
because those skills are often standardized, but that EES are only developed through
hands-on practice. Within real-life based work, internships and an on-campus agency
were favored methods (See Table 10 for work based learning method preferences).
Required volunteering and mentorship were also mentioned by three participants, both of
which could fall under internships and an on-campus agency depending on the format for
those modes of delivery.

Table 10: Work-Based Learning Method Preferences
General-'reallife'modes
Clientprojectsembeddedineach
course
On-campusadvertisingagency
Businessorientedclubs
Internships
Providemarketingservicesfor
institution
Jobshadowing
55 9 45 9 55 9 18
Two of the most common issues reported with the current method of teaching EES
within the SLC advertising program are the timing of the internships; and that students
don’t frequently have the chance to lead projects from idea to launch with time for
analysis of the results (See Table 11 for the issue employers raised with the current modes
of delivery at SLC). P4 commented on the importance of finishing projects for learning
advertising in particular “campaigns need to be realized to validate the learning.” He
continued on to say that the students need the opportunity to fail as advertising doesn’t
provide concrete answers like other disciplines do; therefore solutions can only be
understood through real world work (See Appendix F for more quotes from participant
interviews). This issue could easily be addressed through both preferred methods for
teaching EES (an on-campus agency and internships).

Table 11: Issues as Identified by Employers with
St. Lawrence Colleges’Advertising Program Modes for Teaching EES
internship standards curriculum disconnectshortness
notproductive
noconnectiontoEES
notimeforreflection
timing
generallylow
professorengagement
acceptance
internships
notindividualized
technicalskillfocused
(notEES)
lowquality
nothandsonenough
nochancetofail
nofollowthroughon
projects
employersneeds/
profdelivery
18 0 18 0 36 9 9 9 18 18 18 9 18 9 36 9
The former issue related to the timing of internships in that they do not always
coincide when employers need employees or when they can effectively coach them. This
may best be solved through flexible internship dates or through a different work-based
method such as an on-campus agency; as long as it still ensures EES development for the
student as P3 cautioned.
SG3m was concerned with the amount of hands-on work within the programs and
the opportunity for students to see projects through to analysis. Both of those issues could
explain why this group favored an on-campus agency model for teaching EES (See Table
12 for SG3m delivery mode preferences).
Table 12: SG3m Delivery Mode Preferences (%)
work-based informational other
General-'reallife'modes
Clientprojectsembedded
ineachcourse
On-campusadvertising
agency
Businessorientedclubs
Internships
Providemarketingservices
forinstitution
Jobshadowing
Mentorship
Businesstours
Networkingevents
Interviews
Competitions
Simulations
Portfoliopresentations
Requiredvolunteering
29 0 57 0 43 14 0 14 14 0 14 0 14 14 14

Those participants that showed preference to the on-campus advertising agency
cited communication skills as the biggest EES shortfall; whereas those that favored
internships cited numeracy skill as the biggest EES shortfall. This could be indicative of
what skills they believe will be developed through each method of teaching. If the
number one teachable EES shortfall, as reported by participants in this study, is
communication, then an on-campus advertising agency may be more suited as a method
to develop these EES than through other methods. One participant, P5, suggested a
hybrid model that included both internships and an on-campus advertising agency
whereby students would all participate in a short internship at the beginning of the
program where the employers would assess the students EES. Those students that met
them would be given the opportunity for a longer second placement and those that still
had EES to develop would work in the on-campus agency until the agency manager
(faculty or not) deemed the skills had been met, at which time the student would
complete the remainder of the time on an external internship (See Appendix F for more
quotes from participant interviews). .
Internships received the most support from the study participants when numerically
analyzed; however, through a sentimental analysis an on-campus advertising agency
surpassed internships for teaching EES. Comments regarding internships were in support
of it, but they were often nonchalant and included but-statements such as “internships are
suitable if the student is ready” P5; “internships are good as long as they focus on EES”
P9; and “internships will work if you get the right employer” P4. Employers in support of
the agency model on the other hand, displayed a high degree of positive sentiment with
statements like “Love the idea! It’s really cool!” P2; “An agency would’ve helped me

when I was in school” P6; and “We’d be interested in being involved in the agency” P1
(See Appendix F for more quotes from participant interviews). This last comment also
suggests it may be a good way to engage employers into the learning process. The
participants did caution that whether it’s an agency model or other hands-on methods of
delivery the focus must be on developing EES, and not technical skills. Several
participants cautioned that engagement with the employers in whatever method is crucial
so that the defined EES are current and employer driven, not academia driven.

Chapter 5: Summary, Discussion and Recommendations
The Conference Board of Canada's report highlighted the urgent need for action
regarding EES of new graduates. Their report strongly reprimanded governments, in-
stitutions, employers and graduates for being in the same situation as they were a
decade ago with regard to EES gaps. These gaps are leaving a bad taste in everyone's
mouths and creating a culture of blame; not to mention money being poured into de-
veloping these EES whilst seeing little improvement.
There is much confusion of whose role it is to develop EES; is it the employer's
job, the parents, teachers or is it the students themselves? There's even more ambigui-
ty when it comes to how they should be developed. Employers have some ideas as
this report introduces. This area of study is relatively new with an abundance of new
terrain to explore; this is just the tip of the iceberg.
With the goal to understand EES gaps, role definition, and best methods for
teaching EES, HE institutions and in particular St. Lawrence College, will be more
successful. They will be able to direct resources to areas that meet their mandate of
teaching EES, and most importantly lead in graduate employability.
Summary of Study
This study captured an employer's view of EES through both a comprehensive
literature review and in-depth employer interviews. The initial research questions, all
of which were addressed in the study, were:
1. What essential employability skills (EES) as defined by the provincial govern-
ment are not being met currently through the curriculum at St. Lawrence College?

3. Whose responsibility is it to address any gaps: faculty, students or employers hir-
ing students and graduates?
4. What are the employers' roles in ensuring graduates obtain the essential employa-
bility skills they require (if any)?
The study was grounded in the following theoretical frameworks: learning theo-
ry; human capital theory; cognitive-experiential self-theory; triarchi theory; conflict
theory; and matching theory. The following key themes that became apparent during
the literature review were:
 There is an ongoing conflict between mandated EES and what graduates demon-
strate;
 There is an ongoing debate of whether or not EES can be taught with any success
to impact the labour market;
 Applied colleges have the mandate to lead students from theory to conceptualiza-
tion to practice, but they often fall short of the practice component;
 Employers, institutions and graduates all agree that the first step in addressing the
skills shortage is relationship building between all stakeholders;
 There is a consensus that more integration of experiences that resemble the world
of work is required within education;

 Preferred methods of developing EES, albeit with some draw backs, are through
internships and work-based learning such as an on-campus advertising agency;
and
 Everyone needs to play a role; developing EES is not a subject that has one
teacher.
As a qualitative study, eleven semi-structured, open-ended interviews were
conducted. There were three stratified subject groups of employers: the first group
(SG1) was made up of employers that have hired SLC advertising graduates; SG2
represented employers that have hired SLC advertising interns but not graduates; and
SG3 represented employers that have never hired SLC advertising graduates or in-
ternships.
The data was reviewed through analytical induction and data reduction to de-
termine key themes. A combination of a priori codes and inductive codes were used
in response to the open-ended format of the interviews. The key themes to draw upon
from the interviews are:
 That there are gaps not only when hiring new graduates for employers but be-
tween employers’ desired skills and those they find shortfalls in when hiring new
graduates;
 Employers that have never worked with graduates from certain programs still ap-
ply biases and pre-conceived challenges when hiring any new graduate regardless
of the program of study;

 The gaps that need to be addressed may not even be on the MTCU list of EES,
such as time management and drive as significant shortfalls within graduates;
 Maybe EES are not even teachable;
 IF EES are teachable, school is not the place they should be taught; and
 Student work should be ‘real work’.
Discussion
This study provided insights into each of the five research questions. It also
shed light on some EES that are not on the list but possibly should be such as time
management (n=3) and drive (n=4). Stuckey and Monroe's (2013) report suggests
that the creation of new job categories often outpaces attempts to understand and
classify them, such is the case with the results of this study.
Another area of discussion that this study suggests is that the emphasis should
shift from institutions and governments leading the development of EES to employers
and students moving into the leadership roles. One participant strongly recommended
that the development of EES must start with a three way conversation between the
student, the employer and the professor very early in the academic career and contin-
ue through well beyond the first six months of graduation (P10).
The EES that are not being met. The first research question was to understand
what, if any, EES shortfalls employers have experienced as a follow up to the Con-
ference Board's report (2013) regarding on-going EES gaps in new graduates. Both
the literature review and the primary data confirmed that there are EES gaps between

what graduates can do and what employer's expect them to be able to do (Hazdovac,
2012; Selvadurai et al., 2012).
One of the challenges in determining what EES gaps there are is the dichotomy
of what employer's desired skills versus the way in which these employer's assess or
identify shortfalls when working with new graduates. These two areas appear to be
disconnected from one another. This could be due to the fact that measuring EES is
harder maybe than defining them or developing them (Cranmer, 2006).
An additional challenge in identifying the most pertinent EES gaps is that short-
falls may not be categorically specific but rather a question of subjective quality (An-
drews et al., 2008). Several participants alluded to similar experiences. One partici-
pant said that “all EES (among our graduates) on some level have been low quality at
some point” (P11) and another suggested that the gaps are more individualistic and
most new graduates have skills that are “very good and some that are terrible” (P10).
The most frequently reported EES gaps during this study were related to com-
munications, particularly writing, and personal skills. As suggested above, two of the
more reported personal skill shortfalls were time management and drive. One partici-
pant reported limited drive and passion when working with college graduates and
suggested not only was this hard during the hiring stage but in their experience these
were declining skills throughout their careers as well (P8). The results of this study
were similar to Stuckey and Monroe's (2013) findings in that communication was a
significant area of identified EES gaps. They reported that 46% of employers experi-
ence communication gaps, although his findings were more geared to oral communi-
cation skills versus the participants in this study that identified more gaps in writing

communication skills than they did with oral communication skills. Critical thinking
and problem solving skills were the number one area of concern in Stuckey and Mon-
roe's report; however, this study's results indicated that this was not an area of desira-
bility for the participant employer's nor did they cite many shortfalls within this area.
This may indicate that critical thinking and problem solving skills are more industry
specific than some of the other EES.
Why is the current model not working? One of the most prevalent sugges-
tions of why the current model of developing EES among students may not be suc-
ceeding is that these skills may not be teachable in the first place. Baker (2009) high-
lights that this notion of whether EES should be 'caught or taught' has been a long-
standing debate within HE. In this study, 36% of the participants suggested that EES
are not teachable, but rather developed over time through experience or students “ac-
quire them naturally as they mature” (P1). Brodie and Irving (2007) suggested that
students are advantaged or disadvantaged in regards to their EES, based on their ear-
lier educational experiences. One participant in this study outlined that in their expe-
rience it is only those students in the middle within EES development that can im-
prove through teaching and experience (P6). Overall, there is a notion that EES can
be developed but not necessarily taught; therefore the focus should shift from that of
teaching to one of development.
A significant concern for employer's is their belief that academia does not pro-
vide the amount of hands-on, experiential learning that is required for a graduate to
succeed in the labour market. Mason's (2009) study concluded that many EES are
best learned in workplaces not in classrooms; 45% of participants in this study agreed

An employer's perspective on teaching essential employability skills

An employer's perspective on teaching essential employability skills

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