Chapter 4 Republic to Empire

A Surprising Beginning
 Started as small village; eventually ruled world
 Influenced by Greeks
 Unprecedented unity, peace, prosperity
 1,000 year reign
 500 years = the Republic; 500 years = the Empire

A Legendary Beginning
According to legend, Romulus and
Remus were twin sons of the war
god, Mars.Abandoned at birth, the
twins were raised by a she-wolf.
The boys grew up and decided to
create a great city, but they argued
over where they should build it.
Romulus killed his brother and
named the new city, Rome, after
himself.
Romulus founded the city of Rome
in 753 B.C.

Prehistoric Italy
 Culture developed slowly
 Warlike invaders arrived
about 1,000 B.C.
 Spoke language related to
“Italic”
 Cremated dead; weapons,
armor in tombs
 High quality bronze-work
(weapons, armor, tools)

Resilient People
 Tough mountain people
 Umbrians
 Sabines
 Samnites
 Latins
 Combined with
Etruscans, Greeks, Celts

The Etruscans
 Most powerful influence on Romans
 Arose in Etruria (Tuscany): northern Italy
 Origin unknown
 Culture seen in tombs and art
 Eastern influence? (Asia Minor); religious rituals similar

The Etruscans migrated to Italy
and brought their art with them.

Etruscan Government
 Self-governing settlements; fortified city-states
 12 city-states formed loose, religious confederation
 Ruled by kings at first
 Agrarian aristocracy replaced king’s authority
 Council of nobles elected magistrates annually

Etruscan Domination
 Aristocracy skilled with horses,
chariots
 Military ruling class dominated,
exploited Italians:
 Farming, mining, infantry in
Etruscan armies
 Etruscans became wealthy:
 Agriculture, industry, piracy, trade
with Carthaginians, Greeks

An Etruscan House
Few Etruscan buildings
have survived.

Etruscan Religion
 Influenced Roman religion
 Gloomy view
 Gods, spirits: many evil
 Relied on rituals, priesthood
 Greek influence: gods in
human form, temples

Etruscan Views of Women
Tombs mention names
of mother AND father More influential than Greek
women
 Women appeared in public with
husbands
 Festivals, banquets
 Many were educated
 Attended, took part in athletic
contests

Etruscan sculpture
Notice the clothing and hair styles.
Etruscan art shows positive
images of husbands and wives.

Expansion of Power
 In Italy = Latium (included
small village: Rome)
 South = neighbors to
Greeks in Naples
 North to Po RiverValley
 Across sea to Corsica, Elba

Struggle for Control
 Etruscan chieftains raided land
 Not much unity
 Etruscan power peaked before 500 B.C.; rapidly
declined
 Celtic people from Gaul invaded Po RiverValley
 Gaul = modern France; Celts drove out Etruscans

Etruscan “Memories”
 Etruscan language forgotten
 Etruscan culture assimilated into other
cultures
 Had lasting influence on Romans

Focus on Rome
 Located nearTiber River
 Built on one of seven hills
 Villages built, joined, made
one big town
 Prime location for:
 Communication and trade

The Tiber River at Sunset
A SpectacularView

Rome was built on seven hills.

Avetino Hill
Aventino is a district in
Rome, named after the
hill that rises up near
the Tiber river, and is
one of the legendary
seven hills of Rome.
From the top of this hill
you'll get an amazing
view of the entire city,
and can see into three
countries: Malta, Rome
(Italy) and St. Peter's
Basilica (Vatican City).

Palatine Hill
Palatine Hill at the
Roman Forum: one of
the seven hills of Rome.
According to legend, it
was here that Romulus
killed Remus so that the
great city of Rome
could be built .

Latium
 Sixth century B.C. = Rome came under
Etruscan control.
 Led by Etruscan kings
 Roman army equipped, organized like Greek
phalanx

The Early Days of Rome
 Romulus = first king of Rome
 Other kings conquered
neighbors, expanded Rome
 641-616 B.C. = first bridge across
Tiber constructed
 600 B.C. = Latin first written in
script still used today
 509 B.C. =Temple of Jupiter
completed

The Temple of Jupiter
Located in Rome

Birth of the Republic
Tarquinius founding the
Temple of Jupiter
 Tarquin kings controlled Rome,
abused power
 Tarquinius the Proud = last
Tarquin king
 Tyrant, hated by the people
 509 B.C.: Lucius Junius Brutus
droveTarquinius out of Rome
 Lucias Junius Brutus
established the first republic

Lucius Junius Brutus
Drove out the last of theTarquin kings
and established a republic in 509 B.C.

The Republican Government
 Based on representation, not monarchy
 Romans feared, hated idea of a SINGLE ruler
 Senate = powerful, wealthy citizens
 Senate chose two consuls each year
 By 493 B.C., commoners had representatives
(tribunes)

Imperium
 Romans gave both consuls
imperium
 The right to issue commands
 The right to enforce
commands through:
 Fines, arrest, punishment, death

Consulship
 Two consuls elected
each year
 Roman Senate =
approved candidates
 Assembly of people =
granted imperium

Consul’s Responsibilities
 Commander of the army
 Chief priest
 Supreme judge

Consul’s Imperium
 Make decisions in foreign affairs
 Call out army
 Lead army in battle
 Impose discipline on troops

The Senate: Founded by Romulus
 100 leading men; grew to 300
 Met only when consul called
senate into session
 Advised the consuls
 Senators served for life
 Leaders were experienced,
influential

Curiate Assembly: All Roman Citizens
 Citizenship limited = Father, mother must be Romans
 Divided into 30 groups = voted by group
 Met only when summoned by a consul
 Consul determined agenda, made proposals, recognized
speakers
 Assembly listened, gave approval

The Roman Father
 Father = paterfamilias
 Family’s chief priest,
offers prayers
 Authority like king
 Type of imperium over his
children
 Could sell his children into
slavery; power of life/death

The Roman Wife
 Mother = materfamilias
 Could not be sold or killed
 Could not be divorced easily
 Convicted only by court of
male blood relatives

Wifely Duties
 Control access to
storerooms
 Keep family accounts
 Supervise slaves
 Raise children
 Part of family council
(advice on family matters)

Women in early Roman Society
 Controlled by adult male
 Before marriage: father
 After marriage: husband
 Other male guardian
 Needed guardian’s
approval to buy/sell land,
make contracts

A Married Couple
What does this fresco
suggest about this couple?

Manus = “hand”
 Father transferred control
of daughter to husband
 Control could remain with
father after marriage
 Like “common law” marriage
 Enabled daughter to keep
inheritance after father died

Divorce
 Rare, difficult to obtain
 Limited to serious offenses
 Wife retained dowry

The Client
 Entrusted self to person in a position to help
 Client provided services in return for
protection

The Patron
 Usually wealthy land owner
 Socially superior
 More powerful than client
 Client in the fides, or trust, of his patron

Duties of the Client
 Fight for his patron
 Work his land
 Support him politically

Duties of the Patron
 Physical, legal protection
 Financial help:
 Patron could give a land grant
 Client worked patron’s land (tenant farmer, laborer)
 Patron could give client handouts

Changes in the Patron-Client Relationship
 Initially, patrons = rich, powerful ; clients = poor,
weak
 Changed:
 Some rich became clients of powerful men
 Client-patron relationship = hereditary
 Client-patron families tied to each other

Patricians
 Aristocrats, wealthy upper
class
 Most power
 Conducted state religious
ceremonies
 Sat in the Senate, held office
 Patricians married patricians

Plebeians
 Commoners, lower class
 Poor, dependent small
farmers
 Laborers
 Artisans
 Clients of the nobility

Changes
 Working families grew
wealthy
 Result: more rich plebeians
and poor patricians
 Lack of equality; plebeians
wanted equality
 Fought for 200 years to
gain equality

The Roman Constitution
 Unwritten laws
 Largely based on tradition, custom

Consuls
 Two elected consuls
 Had to be patricians
 Were given imperium

Duties of Consul
 Lead the army
 Religious duties
 Serve as judges

Consuls treated like royalty
 Symbols of royalty:
purple robe + ivory chair
 Had lictors
 Minor officials,
accompanied the consuls
 Carried rods and axe,
symbols of authority

Quaestor
 Originally two quaestors
 Assisted the consuls
 Were financial officials
 Eventually there were eight of them

Tetradrachm with a quaestor on it
On the front:
Aesillas the Quaestor
On the back:
Hercules club down in
center, money chest to
left, quaestor's chair to
right, Q in right field, all
within olive wreath

Consulship
 Served for one year
 Then became member of Senate
 Served on Senate for life
 One consul could veto another consul’s proposal
 Shared religious powers

The Consul’s Limited Power
 Limited imperium
 Power of life/death while leading army
 NOT SO within city of Rome
 Appeal cases involving capital punishment
 Went to popular assembly

Consulship during Times of War
 One consul sent into battle
 Other consul stayed in Rome
 Otherwise, consuls alternated sole command

Dictator
Julius Caesar:
Rome’s first dictator
 During crisis, consul could appoint
someone “dictator”
 Needed Senate approval
 Consul retired so dictator could lead
 Dictator served only for six months
 Full imperium inside Rome AND
outside boundaries

Proconsulship
 Longer wars led to invention of office
 Extended consul’s imperium beyond end of
term
 Continued to command army in the field
 Caused problems for the republic later

Praetor
 Like the consul
 Military generals with judicial
duties, had imperium
 Term lasted for one year
 Eventually, eight praetors
 Terms sometimes extended for
military commands

Censor
 Two censors
 Elected by the Senate
 Must be former consuls,
men of integrity
 Served for five years

The Censor’s Duties
 Classified citizens according to age, property
(census)
 Classification fixed taxation, status
 Compiled roll of senators
 Could strike senators from roll (finances/morality)
 Most coveted political office

The Senate
 Rome’s real governing
force
 Prominent patricians
 Often leaders of clans
 Patrons of many clients

Duties of the Senate
 Proposed laws
 Controlled imperial finances
 Held consuls accountable

Assemblies: pass laws, elect magistrates
 Curiate Assembly
 Popular assembly; voted by curia
 TribalAssembly
 Voted by tribe
 Centuriate Assembly
 Military assembly; voted by
century

Centuriate Assembly
 Political representation of Roman army
 Basic unit of Roman army = century
 80-100 fighting men
 Classified according to weapons, armor, equipment
 Determined by wealth; each man equipped himself

Duties of the Centuriate Assembly
 Elect consuls and other magistrates
 Voted on bills
 Made decision of war and peace
 Court of appeal in cases dealing with citizen’s
life, property

Two Primary Struggles
 INTERNAL struggle
 Between patricians and plebeians
 EXTERNAL struggle
 Between Rome and everyone else
 Greeks, Carthagenians, Macedonians,Gauls/Celts, barbarians

The Senate: Slow to Change
 Originally comprised of wealthy, powerful
aristocrats
 Political power passed to sons
 Marriage between powerful families
 Senate gradually changed over time; included:
 Members of military, representatives of plebeian class

Plebeian Prohibitions
 No public office, priesthood, or judges
 Did not know the law (unwritten!)
 Could not marry patricians
 No choice lands (rewards) after Roman conquest
 Plebeians fought 200 years for equality,
representation

Struggle of the Orders
 Plebeians withdrew from city
to Sacred Mount
 Formed plebeian tribal
assembly
 Elected ten tribunes to
represent them
 Declared tribune inviolate and
sacrosanct
 Could veto magistrate’s action
or bill in assembly/Senate

Service and Representation
 Tribunes served for one year
 Plebeian assembly voted by tribe
 Vote of plebeian assembly – binding on plebeians
 Plebeians gave tribunes full protection, total
allegiance

The Twelve Tables
 Plebeians appointed
commission; created
TwelveTables
 Codified Roman law
 Basis forALL written
Roman law
 Held patricians AND
plebeians accountable

Important Social Changes
 367 B.C. = plebeians elected to consulship
 Eventually, plebeians held other offices:
 Quaestor, dictator, censor
 300 B.C. = plebeians admitted to most
important priesthoods

Withdrawing from Rome Again
 287 B.C. = plebeians withdrew from city again
 Refused to return unless demands met:
 Decisions of plebeian assembly bound ALL
Romans, not just plebeians
 Decisions did not require approval of Senate

A Movement toward Equality?
 445 B.C. = plebeians-patricians could marry each
other
 Two groups combined, formed nobiles
 Patricians + wealthy plebeians
 Distinction now between nobiles and everyone else
 Nobiles had best jobs, wealth, Senatorial power

Conquest of Latins
 Some cities near Rome received full citizenship
 Others treated as municipalities
 Right to intermarry, trade with Romans, self-
government
 Conditional Roman citizenship:
 Move, follow Rome’s foreign policy, provide soldiers

Latins Allied with Rome
 Some married Romans, traded with Rome,
local autonomy
 Forbidden to intermarry, trade with each other
 Land taken from some, but not others
 All allies provided soldiers
 Obey Roman officers, no Roman taxation

Roman Colonies
Via Appia
 Some conquered lands colonized
 Settled by soldiers
 Colonists benefitted
 Roman citizenship, local rule,
became Roman garrison
 Connected by Roman roads

A Cross-Section of a Roman Road

Roman Control
 Harsh punishment of rebels
 Presence of colonies, roads = few revolts
 Roman colonies improved status
 Citizenship (biggest prize), protection, wealth
 Most allies were loyal

Defeat of the Samnites
 Tough mountain people
 Some allies rebelled, joined Etruscans, Gauls
 295 B.C. = Romans defeated Italian coalition
 By 280 B.C. = Rome controlled central Italy

Pyrrhus
 Southern Italy: Romans
intervened in Greek quarrel
 Faced Pyrrhus, king of Epirus
 Good general, disciplined army
 Experienced mercenaries; new
weapon: 20 war elephants
 Defeated Romans twice, but
suffered great losses

Pyrrhus
After defeating the
Roman army, Pyrrhus
worried, “If we win
one more battle
against the Romans
we shall be
completely ruined.”
This is called a
“Pyrrhic victory.”

Greek Defeat
 Greeks forced to submit to
Rome
 By 265 B.C. = Rome ruled all Italy
 Po River to the south of Italy
 After defeating Pyrrhus, king of
Egypt sent message to Rome:
 Congratulations; want friendship;
recognize Roman dominance

Carthage
 Great naval power
 Colony in Northern Africa
 Founded by Phoenicians
 “Carthage” = “New City”
 Location good for trade:
grain, fruit, vegetables,
sheep

Carthaginian Empire
Later expanded to
include:
Spain
Sardinia
Corsica
Malta
Balearic Islands
Western Sicily

Conquered Peoples
 Carthage reduced conquered people to
servitude
 Served in Carthaginian army or navy
 Paid tribute
 Carthage gained access to Spanish silver
mines

Hiero’s Attack on Messana
 Hiero =Tyrant of Syracuse
 Attacked Sicilian city of
Messana (near Rome)
 Italian mercenary soldiers
controlled Messana
 Called Mamertines = “Sons
of the war god Mars”

Turning to Rome for Help
 Hiero defeated the Mamertines
 Some Mamertines askedCarthage to intervene
 Carthage = “ok”, sent a garrison
 One Mamertine faction feared Carthaginian
aggression; asked Rome to help

Implications
 Romans called the Carthaginians “Phoenicians”
 Latin = Poeni or Puni; evolved into Punic
 Roman intervention = aggression against
Carthage
 Rome: “Carthage must not control Sicily”
 Agreed to expel Punic garrison

The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.)
 Stalemate
 Roman fleet cut off supplies
 BesiegedCarthaginian cites in western Sicily
 Carthaginian navy came; Romans destroyed fleet
 War lasted 23 years

The Treaty: 241 B.C.
 Two parts:
 Carthage gave up Sicily + islands between Italy/Sicily
 Pay war indemnity in ten annual installments
 Rome got Sicily
 Carthage able to pay indemnity

The Cost to Rome
 Rome lost over 100,000 men and 500 warships
in the First PunicWar.
 Second PunicWar began only four years later

Rebellion
Sicily became one Roman province.
Sardinia and Corsica became
another Roman province.
 Sicilian mercenaries demanded
that Carthage pay them
 Carthage caught off guard
 In the confusion, Rome acted:
 Seized Sardinia and Corsica
 Demanded that Carthage pay
additional indemnity

Roman Control of the Islands
 Roman governors often served more than a year
 Unchecked by colleagues; had full imperium
 Population = neither Roman nor allies
 Treated as subjects
 Did not serve in the army; paid tribute instead

Roman Rule
 No chance for citizenship, no loyalty to Rome
 Had to pay taxes
 Tax collectors originally locals; later Roman allies
 Eventually, Roman citizens (below senatorial rank)
 Powerful, wealthy because they “squeezed” provincials

Hamilcar Barca
After First PunicWar,
Rome distracted by:
War with Gauls
War across Adriatic
Gave Carthage time to
regroup
Carthage looked to leader,
Hamilcar Barca

Hamilcar Barca
 Carthaginian governor of
Spain
 Built Punic Empire in Spain
 Improved ports, commerce;
exploited mines
 Wooed many of the
conquered tribes
 Built strong, disciplined army

Hasdrubal
 Hamilcar’s successor;
more successful
 Rome worried about
Carthaginian expansion
 Romans made Hasdrubal
promise not to take army
across Ebro River

The Ebro River in Spain
“Carthage: Do Not Cross the Ebro!”

The Second Punic War(218-202 B.C.)
 Hasdrubal was assassinated
 Army chose his successor: Hannibal

Hannibal
Hannibal was the son of Hamilcar Barca.
He was 25 years old when he came to power.
As a general, Hannibal consolidated and
expanded the Punic Empire.

Saguntum: A Spanish Town
 Saguntum asked Rome for alliance
 Before Hannibal took charge
 Rome said “ok”
 Saguntum = about 100 miles south of Ebro

Trouble with Saguntines
A Roman alliance with Saguntum violated
the spirit of the Carthaginian treaty.
 Hannibal took no action at first
 Saguntines provoked tribes
allied with Hannibal
 Believed Rome would help them
 Roman : ”Leave Saguntum
alone.”
 Hannibal ignored warning
 Besieged, captured Saguntum

War
 Rome demanded surrender of Hannibal.
 Carthage refused.
 Rome declared war in 218 B.C.

Hannibal’s New Weapon
Hannibal crossed the
Alps with 37 war
elephants.
Eventually made his
way into Italy
Allied himself with
Gauls – people who
already disliked Romans

Hannibal’s March
Hannibal marched
40,000 troops,
and 37 elephants
over the Alps
into the Roman
homeland.

Hannibal’s Victories
Defeated Romans atTicinus
River
Defeated joint consular armies
atTrebia River
Trapped Roman army at Lake
Trasimene
Terrorized Rome for 16 years

Hannibal’s Strategy
 Encourage Roman allies to defect
 Release Italian prisoners without harm or ransom
 Move army south of Rome, encourage rebellion
 Roman strategy:
 “Fight when army recovers, on favorable ground”

The Battle of Cannae
 Hannibal drew Romans into open fight
 Romans sent 80,000 men to meet him
 30,000 Romans died, many more captured
 Worst defeat in Roman history

Roman Losses
 Loss of Roman prestige
 Allies (southern Italy + Syracuse) joined
Hannibal
 For 10+ years, Hannibal was victorious
 Romans wouldn’t face Hannibal in open field

Hannibal’s Weaknesses
 Inadequate troops, supplies to besiege
walled cities
 No equipment to take the cities by assault

Publius Cornelius Scipio
Roman general; called Africanus
Commanded Roman army in Spain;
proconsular imperium
Not yet 25 years old
No high office yet
Almost as talented as Hannibal

Scipio’s Victories
 204 B.C. = landed in Africa
 DefeatedCarthaginians
 Forced them to accept peace
 Hannibal had to withdraw army from Italy

A Hard Lesson Learned
Hannibal had won every battle,
but lost the war.
Was eventually driven to suicide

Hannibal’s Mistakes
 Had not counted on Roman determination
 Underestimated allies’ loyalty to Rome

The Battle of Zama: 202 B.C.
Hannibal’s mercenaries
deserted
Rome defeated
Carthage
Carthage became
dependent ally of Rome
Rome ruled seas +
Mediterranean coast
from Italy westward

The Third Punic War
 Rome intervened in dispute between
Carthage and Roman ally, Numidia
 Besieged Carthage for two years, attacked,
razed it to the ground in 146 B.C.

Roman Victory
 Territory belonging to Carthage
became the new Roman province
known as Africa.

The Republic’s Conquest
of the Hellenistic World

Rome’s Conquest of the East
 Eastern Mediterranean stability challenged when
kingdoms expanded:
 PhilipV of Macedon attacked cities in the:
 Aegean, Hellespont, Asia Minor (along the coast)
 Antiochus of the Seleucid kingdom attacked:
 Syria, Palestine

Philip V of Macedon
 Formed Carthaginian alliance
during Second PunicWar
 Rome saw PhilipV as a threat
 Alliance provoked conflict
with Rome
 Result: First Macedonian War

The Outcome
 Ended in stalemate
 Macedon tried to control parts of Illyria +
Greece
 Unsuccessful

Second Macedonian War (200 B.C.)
 Romans sent Philip an ultimatum:
 “Do not attack any Greek city.”
 “Pay reparations to Pergamum.”
 Tried to provoke Macedon into a fight
 Philip refused to obey

Greek Freedom
 Flamininus intervened
 Talented young Roman general
 Ordered Philip to withdraw from Greece
 197 B.C. = Defeated Philip inThessaly
 Greek support, ended Second MacedonianWar

Flamininus
Freed Greek cities from PhilipV
Made cities autonomous

War with Antiochus
 Rome withdrew from Greece
 Then faced conflict with Antiochus
 He was expanding power in Asia

Antiochus
 Claimed: “I’m freeing
Greeks from Roman
domination”
 Landed his army on
Greek mainland

Roman Victory
 Defeated atThermopylae + Asia Minor ; driven from
Greece
 Treaty called “Peace of Apamia”
 Deprived of elephants, navy; imposed huge indemnity
 Romans took no territory
 Several Greek cities in Asia became protectorates

Perseus
 Perseus: new Macedonian
king
 Favored democracy in
Greek cities
 Rome worried about Greek
uprisings
 LaunchedThird
MacedonianWar

Aemilius Paullus
 Aemilius Paullus defeated Perseus
 Macedon divided into four separate
republics
 Macedonians forbidden to
intermarry
 Could not conduct business across
boundaries
 Leaders of anti-Roman factions
punished severely

War to Benefit Rome
 Three-day celebration followed
 Parade through streets of Rome:
 Spoils of war, royal prisoners, wealth
 Money relieved Roman tax burden, paid soldiers
 War became a means to benefit Rome

Perseus before Aemilius Paullus

Roman Conquest in Iberia
 Romans harsh toward
“barbarians” in Iberia
 Committed atrocities, lied,
cheated
 Broke treaties to exploit,
pacify natives
 Became hard to recruit
soldiers from there

Numantia
 134 B.C. = Scipio
Aemilianus took key
city: Numantia
 Laid siege
 Burned Numantia to the
ground

Cato the Elder
Roman statesman and orator
Allegedly ended his speeches
the same way:
“Besides, I think that
Carthage must be
destroyed.”

Devastating Carthage
 146 B.C. = Scipio Aemilianus attacked
Carthage
 Plowed up its land
 Put salt in furrows; symbolized permanent
abandonment

Roman Provinces
 Carthage became a province of Africa
 Now six Roman provinces:
 Sicily
 Sardinia-Corsica
 Macedonia
 Hither Spain
 Further Spain
 Africa

Early Roman Republic
Civilization

Mixed Feelings about the Greeks
 Admiration :
 Culture + history
 Contempt:
 Constant squabbling, commercial practices,
weakness

Greek Influence
 Romans spoke Greek and Latin
 Upper classes were bilingual
 Romans studied:
 Greek law, rhetoric, literature, philosophy

The Odyssey
 Livius Andronicus, liberated Greek slave,
translated Odyssey into Latin
 Young Romans read the epic
 Latin made transition: spoken language to literary
language

Greek Influences
Religious Beliefs

Greek Influence
 Identified Roman gods with Greek gods
 Incorporated Greek mythology

Cybele: 3rd century B.C.
Senate approved public worship of
Cybele
“Great Mother goddess”
Fertility cult
Had wild, ecstatic rites (like
Bacchants)
Romans outraged; banned cult

Bacchus: 2nd century B.C.
Senate also
banned cult of
Dionysus (Bacchus)

Chaldean Astrologers: 2nd century B.C.
 Senate tried to ban
the Chaldeans
 Babylonian astrologers
 Did not work

Roman Education: The Basics
 Mostly for boys
 Fathers taught sons, usually at home
 Type of Education:
 Conservative (respected tradition), practical
 Girls possibly taught to read; limited education

Typical Lessons
Reading: Heroic stories, early
Roman history
Writing
Arithmetic
Farming skills
MemorizedTwelveTables
Performed religious rites
Physical training: preparation for
service Roman army

Writing Instruments
Four leaves from
wooden writing tablet
Students wrote on wooden
tablets coated with wax
Stylus pressed letters into wax
Broad, flat end used for erasing

The Goal of Education
 Training students to be moral, pious,
patriotic, law abiding, respectful of tradition

Greek Influence
 Greek teachers introduced study of:
 Language, literature, philosophy
 “Liberal arts education” = Greek concept
 Humanitas: Humanities (history + literature +
philosophy)

Educational Goals Changed because
of Greek Influence
 From practical to broader intellectual training
 Included critical thinking, focused on ideas
 Development of well-rounded person

The Emergence of Schools
Schools established
with Greek influence
Teacher =
grammaticus
Taught Greek
language + literature
Focused on Greek
poets – especially
Homer

Elementary Education: Boys (ages 7-12)
 Attended school with paedagogus
 Greek slave
 Helped with physical well-being
and manners
 Helped boy learn to speak Greek
 Wrote with wax tablet and stylus

A Roman Abacus
 Students used abacus
and pebbles to do
simple calculations.

The Next Stage
 Next, aristocratic boys studied rhetoric
 Art of speaking and writing well
 Practical for use in law and politics

“Higher” School: Boys (ages 12-16)
 Harsh discipline
 “Expanded” education
 Grammaticus introduced:
 Greek and Latin literature
 Dialectic
 Arithmetic
 Geometry
 Astronomy
 Music
 Sometimes rhetoric

Advanced Studies: Boys (16+)
 Instructors usually Greek
 Boys studied formal speeches to learn
rhetoric
 Students wrote, memorized, analyzed
speeches

Personalized Instruction
 Student might follow famous public speaker
 Rich Roman: bring Greek philosopher home
 Teach son
 Fine-tune Greek language skills
 Develop critical thinking skills

Benefits of Education
 Eventually, people outside senatorial class
received education
 Equestrian class, those outside Rome
benefitted most

Education for Women
 Upper class girls received “boy’s early
education”
 Probably taught by tutors at home
 Did not study with philosophers, rhetoricians
 Usually married by that time

A New Life for the Educated Woman
Education helped some
women make new life
Some became prose
writers; others became
poets
This is a fragment of a
letter from Claudia Severa
to Sulpicia Lepidina,
inviting her friend to a
birthday party.

Changes
 Originally, few slaves
 More common during
second century B.C.
 Carthage, cities in Spain
conquered
 250,000 prisoners of war
 Became cheaper for Romans
to buy slaves

Duties
 Domestic servants
 Worked in mines in
Spain and Sardinia
 Artisans
 Public clerks

Roman mosaic: 6th century A.D.
Some slaves worked as
artisans in small factories
and shops

Slaves’ Rights
 Could marry, raise families
 Some could earn money
 Spend as they pleased; purchase freedom
(common)
 Some descendants of freed slaves became
wealthy
 Some became Roman citizens

Growing Number of Slaves in Italy
 Most Roman landowners
employed many slaves
 By time of Jesus = 2 to 3
million slaves
 About 35-40 percent of
total population

Latifundia: Large Plantations
Most slaves worked here
Produced cash crops; owners
motivated by money
Hardest work (except mines)
Slaves often worked in chains
Brutal foremen
Lived in underground prisons

Harsh Conditions led to Slave Rebellions
134 B.C. = rebellion in Sicily, lasted for
more than 2 years
73 B.C. = rebellion led by Spartacus
• Gladiator, led army of 70,000 slaves
• Repeatedly defeated Romans
• Brutally crushed by Roman general,
Crassus

Gladiators
Pictured on a relief from
the first century B.C.
The ColchesterVase, made in Roman
Britain, shows gladiators in combat.

Crassus
Roman general who defeated
Spartacus and his slave army

Decline in Slavery
 Slavery declined but did not disappear
 Reasons for decline:
 Cost of slaves and general economic decline
 More farmers employed coloni (tenant farmers)
 Considered “free” but obligated to the land

The Late Republic
Roman Imperialism

Before Punic Wars
 Mostly family farms
 Grew grain
 Relied on clients, tenants, hired workers –
not slaves

After Punic Wars
 Land devastated
 Some farmers/soldiers abandoned farms,
moved to Rome
 Most worked as tenant farmers

What happened to abandoned farms?
Wealthy landowners often took
abandoned land
Created the large latifundia
Grew cash crops (grain, olives,
grapes )
Raised cattle

The Rich became Richer
 Cheap land
 Many slaves available
 Small farmers became dependent
 More class division

Social Crisis in Middle of Second Century B.C.
 Peasant farmers struggling
 Hard to recruit soldiers
 Clients fled land; patron’s control diminished
 Introduction of secret ballot
 Made former clients more independent

Tiberius Gracchus: A Powerful Tribune
Land reforms targeted public land
acquired, held illegally
Landholders keep up to 300 acres
 State reclaims anything over that
Other land redistributed in small lots to
poor
 Pay rent to state; could not sell the land

Senate’s Reaction
 Hostility
 Many held vast estates
 Others worried about interference with
property rights
 Some fearedTiberius’ political ambitions

Tiberius’ Fight
 Land reform bill submitted for approval
 Vetoed by M. Octavius (a tribune)
 Tiberius appealed to Senate; opposed him
 Submitted bill again; Octavius vetoed it again

A Bold Move
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
 With public support,
Tiberius had Octavius
removed from office
 Violated Roman
constitution

Power Shift
 Indicated shift of power AWAY from Senate,
TO the people
 Rome worried that it would become a
democracy like Athens.

Tiberius proposes another bill
 Harsher than the first
 More appealing to the people
 Provided for a commission to carry it out

King Attalus’ Will
KingAttalus of Pergamum
died, left kingdom to Rome
Tiberius wanted estate’s
money to finance
commission
Challenged Senate’s control
of finances, foreign affairs

Death of Tiberius Gracchus
First internal bloodshed
in Roman history
 Dangerous to leave tribunate;
ran for office second time
 Another strike against tradition
 Riot broke out at elections
 Mob of senators/clients killed
 Tiberius + 300 followers
 Threw bodies intoTiber River

Prior to Tiberius’ Tribunate
 Political struggles mostly about honor,
reputation among leading families

After Tiberius’ Tribunate
 Senatorial power challenged
 People have more power
 Could pursue political career –without
aristocratic influence
 Politicians could appeal to the people for
support

Division of Support
 Populares = politicians who sought support of
the people
 Optimates = “best men,” supported
traditional role of the Senate
 Not political parties

Gaius Gracchus: Another Powerful Tribune
 Brother ofTiberius
 His tribunate more dangerous thanTiberius’
 Had support of all tribunes
 Meant: no veto of his bills
 Recent law: “tribunes can be re-elected”

Programs and Reforms
 Revived agrarian commission
 Wanted to establish new colonies:
 Two in Italy, one on site of Carthage
 Passed law stabilizing price of grain in Rome

Gaius Gracchus and the Equestrians
Gaius appealed to
equestrians for support
 Powerful group
 Served in Roman cavalry
 Not peasants, not
Senators
 Visible minority were
businesspeople

Duties of a Roman Equestrian
 Supplied goods,
services to Roman state
 Collected taxes
 Many were rich
 Most voted with the
Senate
 Some hoped to become
senators

Gaius Gracchus and Pergamum
Made Pergamum Roman
province of Asia
Gave equestrians right to
collect taxes there
Result:
 Equestrians formally
recognized as a class
 Political unit, could
be used against
Senate

Gaius’ Reelection?
 Easily won reelection as tribune in 122 B.C.
 Wanted to give citizenship to Italians
 Common people said “no” – Roman
citizenship prized
 NOT reelected in 121 B.C.

A Violent End
Hostile consul provoked
violence against Gaius
Gracchus
Gaius hunted down, killed
Senatorial court
condemned, killed 3,000
followers – without trial

Jugurtha, King of Numidia
Massacred Roman + Italian businessmen in his province

Jugurthine War
 Senate reluctant to become involved
 Equestrians and people forced Senate to
declare war: 111 B.C.

The People Act!
JugurthineWar dragged on
People suspected Senate of taking
Jugurtha’s bribes
C. Marius elected to consulship
Assembly (not Senate!) sent him to
Numidia to fight Jugurtha

Marius: The New Man
 Considered novus homo = “new man”
 First in history of family to reach consulship
 Wealthy equestrian, not Roman aristocrat
 Married to Julius Caesar’s aunt (Julia)
 Reputation: outstanding soldier, political
maverick

The Capture of Jugurtha
Quickly defeated Jugurtha
BUT Jugurtha escaped – war
continued
Marius’ subordinate, L. Cornelius
Sulla, trapped Jugurtha,
ended war

Sulla
Highly ambitious
From impoverished, but noble,
Roman family
Wanted credit for capturing
Jugurtha – denied
Bitter rivalry between Marius and
Sulla

Marius’ Contributions to Rome

Marius’ Reelection
 Elected to second consulship
 Dealt with uprisings among barbaric tribes
 Served five consecutive terms

Marius’ Changes to the Army
 Began using volunteers
 Mostly farmers, rural workers who lost land
 Enlisted for long term of service
 Saw army as a career choice

Marius’ Mules
Client-patron relationship with their
general
Soldiers given:
 Food
 Clothing
 Shelter
 Spoils of war
 Upon retirement, land

Standardization
 Standardized armor, weapons
 Changed length of pike
 Spear tip crumpled when it hit the ground
 Standardized training

Shift in Loyalties
 Loyalty to general rather than to the state
 Now military leaders could gain political
power

The War Against the Italian Allies

Italian Discontent and Drusus
 Italian veterans denied land upon retirement
 Senate worried about revolt
 Senate expelled all Italians from Rome in 95 B.C.
 91 B.C.: tribune M. Livius Drusus submitted bill
to enfranchise (“give rights to”) Italians

Drusus
Assassinated in 90 B.C.
As a result, Italians revolted
Established separate
confederation
• Had its own capital + coinage

Roman Peace
 Citizenship for Italian cities that remained loyal
 Citizenship for rebels who laid down arms
 All Italians became citizens, with full rights/
protections
 Italians maintained local self-government
 Eventually, little distinction between Romans and
Italians

Sulla
Successful in war against Italian allies
Elected consul for 88 B.C.
Given command of war against
Mithridates
Mithridates led major rebellion in
Asia

Mithridates
Opposed Roman
expansion for 20 years
Wore lion’s head to
identify with Hercules

Sulla Marches on Rome
 Marius now 70 years old
 Got assembly to transfer
command to him
 In response, Sulla marched
SIX legions against Rome
 One legion = 6,000 men
 Six legions = 36,000 men
 First time Roman general
used army against Romans

The Defeat of Marius
Marius + supporters fled; Sulla then fought
Mithradates
Marius joined with consul Cinna – took Rome
by force
 Labeled Sulla “outlaw”; massacred
senatorial opposition
Died soon after election to seventh consulship
Probably insane when he died

Cinna
 Became Rome’s chief leader
 Supported by Marius’ men
 Rome now in the hands of populares

Sulla’s Victories
 Defeated Mithridates in major battle
 Not a permanent defeat
 Mithridates came back later
 Pompey finally defeated him

Sulla Seizes Control
 Sulla returned, fought civil war (lasted two years)
 Sulla’s allies included Pompey and Crassus
 Drove out Marius’ supporters
 Had himself appointed dictator
 Not in traditional sense, but for constitutional reform

Sulla’s Proscriptions
• Ok to kill “outlaws” – without trial
• Killer (and informer) given reward
• Sulla targeted political/personal
opponents
• Confiscated land, property from outlaws
• Built solid military support; shared
wealth with soldiers

Sulla’s Government
 Optimate — traditional; wanted return to senatorial
government
 Enrolled 300 new members in the Senate
 Equestrians + from upper classes of Italian cities
 Office of tribune made political “dead end”
 Created new courts
 Judge AND jurors were Senators; increased senatorial power

Sulla’s Last Days
 Retired to life of ease and luxury in 79 B.C.
 Compiled his memoirs in twenty-two books
 Died shortly afterward

Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, and Cicero

The Senate Regains Power
 Sulla’s constitution attacked soon after his death
 Senate violated procedures meant to protect
power
 Senate gave command of army to Pompey
 28 years old, never elected to magistracy before
 Senate appointed Pompey proconsul in Spain

Pompey and Crassus
Pompey the Great
 Pompey suppressed rebellion
in Spain, returned glorious
 Senate wanted Crassus to
suppress slave rebellion
 Crassus: rich, ambitious
senator
 Eventually commanded almost
all of Italy

Pompey and Crassus Unite
 Senate feared Pompey, Crassus; demanded
special honors
 Both elected to consulship for the year 70 B.C.
 Pompey legally ineligible, needed Crassus’s support
 Crassus needed Pompey’s help
 Joined forced but disliked each other

Support
 Gained popular support
 Promised to restore full powers of tribunes
 Gained equestrian support
 Promising to restore equestrians to extortion court
juries
 Won election; repealed most of Sulla’s
constitution

Pompey’s Imperium
 Special law gave Pompey imperium for three
years
 Power to raise troops + money: defeat pirates
 Given unprecedented power to fight
Mithridates again

Pompey’s Unprecedented Power
 Had imperium over all Asia
 Could make war and peace at will
 His imperium superior to any proconsul in the
field

Pompey’s Success
 Defeated Mithridates
 Cleared seas of pirates
 Extended Rome’s frontier to the Euphrates
 Organized territories of Asia
 More power, prestige, popular support

Pompey’s Pillar
One of the only lasting remains
from ancientAlexandria

Senate Reaction
 Senate worried that:
 Pompey would emulate Sulla
 Establish his own rule

Crassus
Julius Caesar
 Rich, influential; no Senate
support
 No firm political base of his
own
 No military glory like Pompey
 Allied with popular leader:
Gaius Julius Caesar

Aeneas’ Flight from Troy
Descended from old,
politically obscure,
patrician family
Claimed descent from
Aeneas – son ofVenus
Worrisome family ties:
Uncle: Marius
FirstWife: Cornelia
(daughter of Cinna)

Julius Caesar, the General
Ambitious politician
Skilled orator
Allied with populares
Wanted military command to
build reputation
Competed with Pompey

Cicero
Opposed Crassus for
consulship
Novus homo like Marius,
but not a popularis
Leading lawyer in Rome
Noted orator

Cicero’s Political Goals
 Protect republic from demagogues + ambitious
generals
 Unite equestrians + Senate
 Senate not happy, but preferred Cicero to
Cataline
 Dangerous + popular politician; allied with Crassus

Lucius Sergius Catilina or Cataline
• Cicero + Antonius elected
consuls
• Cicero discovered Cataline’s
plot:
• Incite rebellions around Italy
• Hoped to take Rome by force
• Cicero acted quickly,
defeated Cataline

Formation of the
First Triumvirate

Brundisium
62 B.C. = Pompey
arrived at Brundisium
Before returning to
Rome, disbanded army
Illegal to march army
into Rome
Celebrated great
triumph
Returned to private life

Pompey’s Return to Rome
 Wanted Senate to recognize achievements,
grant requests:
 Approve organization of Eastern provinces
 Allot land to his veterans
 Senate feared Pompey; refused requests

An Unlikely Alliance
 Frustrated
 Formed alliance with Crassus + Julius Caesar
 Both were his political enemies
 They believed Senate blocked their goals

Caesar’s Dilemma in 60 B.C.
 Caesar returned to Rome from Spanish
governorship
 Wanted “triumph”; wanted to run for consul
 Law did not allow both; had to choose:
 Stay outside city with army OR canvass for votes
 Asked for special dispensation; Senate refused

A Political Miracle
 Caesar reconciled Crassus with Pompey
 Gained support of both for his own ambitions
 Resulted in FirstTriumvirate
 Informal agreement
 Each man sought his own, private goals

Julius Caesar & His Government of Rome

Caesar and the Pirate Attack
Wanted to polish rhetoric at skills in Rhodes
Captured by pirates, held for 38 days
Pirates wanted 20 talents (ransom); he
suggested 50
Wrote poetry, told pirates he would return,
crucify them
Ransomed, raised fleet, pursued pirates,
fulfilled promise

Caesar’s Rise to Power
 Elected to consulship for 59
B.C.
 Fellow consul = Cato’s son-in-
law (conservative, hostile to
Caesar)
 Used triumvir to get
command like Pompey’s
 Became governor of Illyricum
and Gaul (five-year term)

Pompey, Crassus & Caesar
 Pompey got what he wanted:
 Land bill settling veterans + organization of East
 Crassus got what he wanted:
 Tax contract to benefit equestrians
 Caesar given opportunity to subdue Gauls

Caesar’s Success
 Progress: excellent troops + experienced officers
 Conquered most of Gaul
 Asked for extension of command
 Crassus + Pompey fighting, weakening their power
 Senate ordered Caesar’s recall

Agreements
 Caesar met with Crassus,
Pompey; renewed coalition
 Gave Caesar another five-
year command in Gaul
 Crassus and Pompey: consuls
again n 55 B.C.
 Afterward, each would
receive army + five-year
command

Gaul
 Captured Alesia in 51 B.C.
 Marked end of Gallic
resistance – and Gallic liberty
 Brought Caesar wealth,
fame, military power
 Commanded 13 loyal
legions (78,000 men)

Sketch of the double circumvallation
at Alesia

Vercingetorix
 Leader of the Celts

Crisis
 Crassus died
 Trying to conquer
Parthians in the East
 Successors to Persian
Empire
 Death of Julia ended
alliance with Pompey
 Caesar’s daughter – and
Pompey’s wife

Rioting in Rome leads to Rivalry
 Senate appointed Pompey sole consul; jealous of
Caesar
 Senate wanted Caesar brought back to Rome
 “Become private citizen after proconsulship expires”
 “Stand trial for illegalities in Gaul, etc.”
 Caesar saw trap, asked to stand trial in absentia

The Rubicon River: 49 B.C.
Senate ordered
Pompey to defend
state
Ordered Caesar to
relinquish command;
issued deadline
For Caesar, this meant
death or exile

Rome and the Rubicon
Caesar ordered legions
to cross Rubicon River
Boundary between his
province and Rome
Started a civil war

Caesar as Victor
 45 B.C. = Caesar defeated Pompey’s sons in
Spain
 War was over
 Caesar was in charge

Innovations
 Spent less than a year in Rome
 Tried to improve chaotic society:
 Julian calendar
 Elevated role of Italians
 Increased number of senators
to 900, including Italians +
Gauls
 Granted Roman citizenship
freely

Caesar’s Treatment of Senate
 Senate continued to play role – only in theory:
 Caesar increased its size
 Seated more of Caesar’s supporters in Senate
 Caesar held military monopoly
 Was disrespectful to Senate

Caesar’s Leadership
 Appointed dictator for ten years
 Next year, appointed dictator for life
 Held:
 Consulship
 Immunity of tribune (although a
patrician)
 Chief priesthood
 Prefect of morals (new position)
 Appointed magistrates for next few
years
Coin features Julius Caesar
as dictator for life

Conspiracy
 Enemies quick to point out Caesar’s abuses
 Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus led
conspiracy
 Included sixty senators in all

The Conspirators
Marcus Brutus Gaius Cassius Longinus

The Ides of March
 March 15, 44 B.C.
 Caesar entered Senate without
bodyguard
 Stabbed to death
 Conspirators thought of
themselves as heroes
 No plan of action following
Caesar’s death

No Way Back
 Republic changed too much to go back
 Years of civil war
 Led to end of the Republic

The Second Triumvirate
and the
Emergence of Octavian

Mark Antony and Octavius
Mark Antony Antony = Caesar’s capable follower
 Expected to be named successor
 Caesar named Gaius Octavius as heir
 18 years old, adopted grandnephew;
sickly, inexperienced
 Inherited three-quarters of Caesar’s
vast wealth

Octavius and the Senate
Caesar Augustus Senate tried to pit Octavian
against Antony
 Conservatives rejected request for
consulship; Octavius rebelled
 Took army, marched on Rome
 Took adopted name: C. Julius
Caesar Octavianus
 Historians call him Octavian; he
insisted on Caesar

A New Alliance
Lepidus 43 B.C. = Octavian became
consul
 Labeled conspirators “outlaws”
 Needed help to fight Brutus +
Cassius’ army
 Pact with MarkAntony and
Lepidus

Creation of Second Triumvirate
 Octavian, Antony, Lepidus took control of Rome
 Appointed selves “triumvirs to put the republic in
order”
 Established SecondTriumvirate
 Unlike first triumvirate
 Legally empowered to rule almost dictatorially

Revenge
 Wave of proscriptions started because:
 Needed money to pay their troops
 Individual greed
 Proscriptions worse than Sulla’s

Victory for Second Triumvirate
 42 B.C. = Defeated Brutus + Cassius at
Philippi
 Each of triumvir received a command:
 Lepidus = Africa
 Antony = the East
 Octavian = theWest

The Cost of Political Victories
 Octavian went to Sicily; defeated Pompey’s
son
 Confiscated land in Italy to settle 100,000
veterans
 Angered many people

Maecenas
 Octavian’s advisor, diplomatic agent
 Managed relations with Antony, Lepidus
 Patron of arts: clients included Horace,Virgil
 Praised Octavian’s heritage, traditional Roman values
 Octavian associated with Italy, West, order,
justice

Antony
 Known for reckless living:
 Drinking, gambling, scandalous love affairs
 Married Octavian’s sister, Octavia (Antony’s
fourth wife)
 Octavia pregnant;Antony had affair with
Cleopatra

Cleopatra VII
 Smart, ambitious,
beautiful, powerful
 Had son with Julius
Caesar
 She and Mark Antony
had three children
 Wanted to unite
Egyptian wealth and
Roman power

Antony’s Ties with Egypt
 Antony attacked Parthia (disastrous)
 Octavian promised troops, sent none; Antony relied on
Egypt
 Division arose:
 Octavian identified with Italy, Rome, the West
 He identified Antony with Egypt, the East
 Suggested that Cleopatra controlled Antony

Antony and Cleopatra
 Attended public festival in
Alexandria
 Sat on golden thrones
 She was proclaimed “Queen
of Kings”
 Son by Julius Caesar named
“King of Kings”
 Parts of Roman Empire
promised to her children

Growing Conflict
 32 B.C. = Conflict between Octavian, Antony
(Lepidus gone)
 Antony sought senatorial support
 Octavian published the “will of Antony”
 Revealed gifts of provinces to Cleopatra’s children

Battle of Actium
 31 B.C. = Battle of
Actium in western
Greece
 Octavian won
 Antony and Cleopatra
fled to Egypt
 Both committed suicide

Octavian Reigns
 Civil wars ended
 Octavian became absolute ruler of
Mediterranean
 Faced challenges to restore stability, peace,
prosperity

Chapter 4 Republic to Empire

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Chapter 4 Republic to Empire