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Social
Structures, Institutions, and
Socialization
Notes to chapters 8, 9, 10
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
STATUSES ROLES
Social Structure
Ascribed
Achieved
• Social structure refers to the way society is organized.
• Status = is a position in a social structure.
• Role = how we (generally) expect members of a status to
behave.
– Statuses and Roles exist independently of their ‘incumbents’ or
‘occupants’
Expectation Performance
Statuses
• You can think of (sets of) statuses as different
ways of categorizing people in different
situations.
– Examples: Family statuses, occupational statuses
, social class statuses, demographic statuses, etc.
1. Achieved statuses – positions that are achieved
by the individuals for themselves (but not
always on purpose); these statuses can change.
2. Ascribed statuses – statuses given to individuals
generally at birth, and from which they cannot
escape; these statuses are fixed.
Statuses
• Master Status- the most important status
someone occupies (as perceived by others)
• Status Symbol- material sign that indicates
someone’s status.
Roles
• Roles- how we expect occupants of a social
status to behave and their attempt to meet
those expectations in role performances.
– Role = the common denominator among all
occupants of a status; (i.e. what they all have in
common)
• Role Conflict- a situation in which
incompatible role demands are placed on a
person by two or more statuses at the same
time.
Primary and Secondary Groups
• Primary group: the people we spend the most time with; a
common whole, a “WE.” (George Horton Cooley)
• Secondary group: a larger, more specialized group in which
members engage in impersonal, goal-oriented relationships.
PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP
Relationships are ends in themselves Relationships are viewed as means to
an end (e.g. money)
Tend to be small in size; intimate
association
Tend to be larger in size
Personal or individual qualities are
most important
Your status, rather than personal
attributes are most important
The family is typically the first and the
most enduring source of influence on
the individual
The most important secondary group
is the formal organization (e.g.
bureaucracy)
Social Structures
• Social structure is made up of statuses and
roles. A status is a position in a social
structure, and the role is how we (generally)
expect members of a status to behave.
• Statuses and Roles exist independently of
their ‘incumbents’ or ‘occupants’
Status
• A social status is a ‘position that a person
occupies in a social structure’
– You can think of these are different ways of
categorizing people in different situations.
– Examples: Family statuses, occupational statuses
, social class statuses, demographic statuses, etc.
1. Achieved statuses – positions that are achieved by
the individuals for themselves (but not always on
purpose); these statuses can change.
2. Ascribed statuses – statuses given to individuals
generally at birth, and from which they cannot
escape; these statuses are fixed.
Role
• A role is the ‘sum total of expectations about
behavior attached to a particular social status’;
how we expect occupants of a social status to
behave.
– ‘Occupants of a social status are expected to perform
certain roles’
– Role = the common denominator among all occupants
of a status; (i.e. removing all idiosyncracies, what they
all have in common)
– Example: I have the status of ‘teacher’; My role is to
teach.
Three Problems
1. Role Strain
– Overwhelm, Stress with a single role
2. Status Inconsistency
– Ascribed vs. Achieved statuses
3. Role Conflict
– Conflict of interest; clashing expectations
between many roles
Society and Social Institutions
• Society = the totality of people and social
relations in a given geographic space.
– Societies, unlike groups, are self-sufficient: ‘no
group, no matter how large, qualifies as a society
unless it provides the resources to answer all of its
members’ basic needs’ (p. 140)
• Social Institutions = An institution is an
accepted and persistent constellation of
statuses, roles, values, and norms that
respond to important societal needs.
The Family as a Social Institution
Statuses Mother, father, son, daughter
Role expectations Wives and husbands must be sexually faithful to one
another
Values ‘All for one, and one for all’;
Norms Help one another; children treat parents with respect;
parents treat children equally
Basic Needs and Social Institutions
Societal Needs Social Institutions
Have continual supply of new
members
The family
Socialize new members The family, Education, Religion
Deal with health and sickness Medicine
Assign jobs and tasks Education, labor market
Create knowledge Science, religion
Control its members Law enforcement, judicial system, religion
Defend against enemies Government, military
Produce and exchange goods Economic system
Nature of Social Institutions
1. Institutions generally unplanned, and develop
gradually
2. Institutions are inherently conservative and
change slowly
3. Society’s institutions are interdependent: a
change in one leads to changes in the others
4. The statuses, roles, values, and norms
associated with an institution in one society may
be very different from those in another society.
Socialization
• Socialization = the lifelong process of social
interaction through which individuals acquire
a self-identity and the skills necessary to
achieve cultural competency.
– Agents of Socialization include the
Family, Schools, Mass Media, Peer Groups, and
the Workplace
• Social self = the relatively organized complex
of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors
associated with an individual
What is REAL?
• Thomas theorem: "If people define
situations as real, they are real in their
consequences“
– To understand human inter-actions and
relations, sociologists have to understand
both reality, and perceived reality.
– ‘There is always a conflict between
spontaneous definitions of the situation
made by members of a society, and the
definitions which this society provides for
him’
W. I. Thomas
1863 - 1947
Irving Goffman
• Social roles and the ‘Definition of the
Situation’
– We are always performing social roles –
social roles are the expectations about the
behavior attached to our social status, i.e.
how we are expected to behave.
– Roles are scripted; content of roles provided
to us by society, but roles are not necessarily
fake or insincere!
– Most effective way to ensure a convincing
role performance is to influence the
definition of the situation: how things are
defined initially will influence enormously
people’s subsequent behaviors and
expectations…
Irving Goffman
• Rituals: refers to all those simplified,
exaggerated, stereotyped behaviors
that signal or display particular
emotions or social statuses in a
situation
• Interaction rituals: are the
institutionalized, frequently
unspoken, ways of behaving in a
society.
– Example: how to say ‘hello’ and
‘goodbye’ in a culture.
Play and Games
• Play: in play, there are no rules; the child makes
it up as he or she goes along.
– Play is the first step toward constructing a “Me”
• Games: games have rules and specific roles (e.g.
batter, pitcher, catcher, outfielder); the rules
specify how the person in each role participates
– In Mead’s view, the roles and the rules of games are
‘impersonal’.
– Participating in games enhances the ability of
children for role-taking, to see other people’s points
of view, and to acquire a generalized other (pg. 161)
PART II. SOCIALIZATION AND THE
SELF
Feral (‘Wild’) Children
Charles H. Cooley
“The looking-glass self”
• The individual internalizes the attitudes
of others toward him/her (“Me”) and
responds or reacts to those attitudes
(“I”)
• The self emerges out of social
interaction: selves can only exist in
definite relationships to others selves
• ‘Generalized Other’: we internalize or
anticipate how others we don’t know
will expect us to behave;
– “the community and society in which we
live” (p.261)
– The collectively shared consensual
meanings in society
Charles H. Cooley
“The looking-glass self”
1. We imagine how we look to the
other person
2. We imagine the other person’s
reaction to our appearance
3. In response, we have some
feeling, such as pride or shame
George Herbert Mead
• Influenced by Pragmatism, school of
American philosophy
• Focus on practical conditions and
consequences of action
 The Self
• Self = Dynamic interaction between the
“I” (subject) and the “Me” (object).
• The ‘ME’ sees myself as an object, as
others see me; the ‘I’ is my response to
my perception of how I think others see
me in this situation.
• Children are not born with an I and a
ME!
George Herbert Mead
• Play: in play, there are no rules; the child makes
it up as he or she goes along.
– Play is the first step toward constructing a “Me”
• Games: games have rules and specific roles (e.g.
batter, pitcher, catcher, outfielder); the rules
specify how the person in each role participates
– In Mead’s view, the roles and the rules of games are
‘impersonal’.
– Participating in games enhances the ability of
children for role-taking, to see other people’s points
of view, and to acquire a generalized other (pg. 161)
PART III. TYPES OF INFLUENCE
(POWER)
INFLUENCE
UNINTENDED
(unconscious)
EMERGENCE
1.FORCE 2.MANIPULATION 3.PERSUASION 4.AUTHORITY
Coercive
Induced
Legitimate
Competent
Personal
Types of Influence
Definitions of Power
1. Dennis Wrong: power is the
capacity to intentionally influence
others.
2. Bertrand Russell: “power is the
actual production of intended
effects”
3. Max Weber: ‘the chance of a man
or a number of men to realize their
own will even against the resistance
of others...’
Russell
(1872-1970)
Weber
(1864-1920)
Forms of Power (intended influence)
I. Force
II. Manipulation
III. Persuasion
IV. Authority:
– Coercion, Induced, Legitimate, Competent, and
Personal
• * Note: all forms of power except ‘force’
must be communicated.
1. Force
• Force = treating a human as an object. Note: this only refers
to the application of force, not to the threat of force.
• Violence is the ultimate form of force: assaulting the body to
inflict pain, injury, suffering, or even death.
Depiction of slave whippingMedieval torture
2. Manipulation
(aka ‘Fraud’)
• Definition: any deliberate
attempt to influence or elicit a
desired response from another
person, *where the desired
response is not explicitly
communicated to the other
person*
– Spontaneous, informal interaction
depends on the shared belief that
manipulation isn’t taking place.
Shamwow!
3. Persuasion
• Persuasion occurs whenever
someone agrees with someone
else’s arguments or appeals after
evaluating them independently in
light of his/her own interests.
• Persuasion implies a context of
open and free
communication, with no
anticipation of punishments or
rewards, i.e. without any felt
need to do what the other wants.
4. Authority
• Authority is successful ordering or forbidding
– A relationship of command and obedience.
– Persuasion = tested acceptance; Authority = untested
acceptance.
• 5 types (based on motivations for obeying):
1. Coercion (punishments, threat of force)
2. Induced (rewards such as money)
3. Legitimate (rights to command, obligations to obey)
4. Competent (based on perceived expertise)
5. Personal (based on desire to please)
Personal authority
• Personal authority is usually
low in extensiveness (# of people
it influences): e.g. a lover who
declares ‘your wish is my
command!’
• But charismatic leaders use
personal authority to
generate mass followings
that challenge the traditional
order.
Mussolini and Hitler are
(negative) examples
of charismatic leaders

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Social structure, institution, socialization (ch 8, 9, 10)

  • 2. SOCIAL STRUCTURE STATUSES ROLES Social Structure Ascribed Achieved • Social structure refers to the way society is organized. • Status = is a position in a social structure. • Role = how we (generally) expect members of a status to behave. – Statuses and Roles exist independently of their ‘incumbents’ or ‘occupants’ Expectation Performance
  • 3. Statuses • You can think of (sets of) statuses as different ways of categorizing people in different situations. – Examples: Family statuses, occupational statuses , social class statuses, demographic statuses, etc. 1. Achieved statuses – positions that are achieved by the individuals for themselves (but not always on purpose); these statuses can change. 2. Ascribed statuses – statuses given to individuals generally at birth, and from which they cannot escape; these statuses are fixed.
  • 4. Statuses • Master Status- the most important status someone occupies (as perceived by others) • Status Symbol- material sign that indicates someone’s status.
  • 5. Roles • Roles- how we expect occupants of a social status to behave and their attempt to meet those expectations in role performances. – Role = the common denominator among all occupants of a status; (i.e. what they all have in common) • Role Conflict- a situation in which incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses at the same time.
  • 6. Primary and Secondary Groups • Primary group: the people we spend the most time with; a common whole, a “WE.” (George Horton Cooley) • Secondary group: a larger, more specialized group in which members engage in impersonal, goal-oriented relationships. PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP Relationships are ends in themselves Relationships are viewed as means to an end (e.g. money) Tend to be small in size; intimate association Tend to be larger in size Personal or individual qualities are most important Your status, rather than personal attributes are most important The family is typically the first and the most enduring source of influence on the individual The most important secondary group is the formal organization (e.g. bureaucracy)
  • 7. Social Structures • Social structure is made up of statuses and roles. A status is a position in a social structure, and the role is how we (generally) expect members of a status to behave. • Statuses and Roles exist independently of their ‘incumbents’ or ‘occupants’
  • 8. Status • A social status is a ‘position that a person occupies in a social structure’ – You can think of these are different ways of categorizing people in different situations. – Examples: Family statuses, occupational statuses , social class statuses, demographic statuses, etc. 1. Achieved statuses – positions that are achieved by the individuals for themselves (but not always on purpose); these statuses can change. 2. Ascribed statuses – statuses given to individuals generally at birth, and from which they cannot escape; these statuses are fixed.
  • 9. Role • A role is the ‘sum total of expectations about behavior attached to a particular social status’; how we expect occupants of a social status to behave. – ‘Occupants of a social status are expected to perform certain roles’ – Role = the common denominator among all occupants of a status; (i.e. removing all idiosyncracies, what they all have in common) – Example: I have the status of ‘teacher’; My role is to teach.
  • 10. Three Problems 1. Role Strain – Overwhelm, Stress with a single role 2. Status Inconsistency – Ascribed vs. Achieved statuses 3. Role Conflict – Conflict of interest; clashing expectations between many roles
  • 11. Society and Social Institutions • Society = the totality of people and social relations in a given geographic space. – Societies, unlike groups, are self-sufficient: ‘no group, no matter how large, qualifies as a society unless it provides the resources to answer all of its members’ basic needs’ (p. 140) • Social Institutions = An institution is an accepted and persistent constellation of statuses, roles, values, and norms that respond to important societal needs.
  • 12. The Family as a Social Institution Statuses Mother, father, son, daughter Role expectations Wives and husbands must be sexually faithful to one another Values ‘All for one, and one for all’; Norms Help one another; children treat parents with respect; parents treat children equally
  • 13. Basic Needs and Social Institutions Societal Needs Social Institutions Have continual supply of new members The family Socialize new members The family, Education, Religion Deal with health and sickness Medicine Assign jobs and tasks Education, labor market Create knowledge Science, religion Control its members Law enforcement, judicial system, religion Defend against enemies Government, military Produce and exchange goods Economic system
  • 14. Nature of Social Institutions 1. Institutions generally unplanned, and develop gradually 2. Institutions are inherently conservative and change slowly 3. Society’s institutions are interdependent: a change in one leads to changes in the others 4. The statuses, roles, values, and norms associated with an institution in one society may be very different from those in another society.
  • 15. Socialization • Socialization = the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the skills necessary to achieve cultural competency. – Agents of Socialization include the Family, Schools, Mass Media, Peer Groups, and the Workplace • Social self = the relatively organized complex of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors associated with an individual
  • 16. What is REAL? • Thomas theorem: "If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences“ – To understand human inter-actions and relations, sociologists have to understand both reality, and perceived reality. – ‘There is always a conflict between spontaneous definitions of the situation made by members of a society, and the definitions which this society provides for him’ W. I. Thomas 1863 - 1947
  • 17. Irving Goffman • Social roles and the ‘Definition of the Situation’ – We are always performing social roles – social roles are the expectations about the behavior attached to our social status, i.e. how we are expected to behave. – Roles are scripted; content of roles provided to us by society, but roles are not necessarily fake or insincere! – Most effective way to ensure a convincing role performance is to influence the definition of the situation: how things are defined initially will influence enormously people’s subsequent behaviors and expectations…
  • 18. Irving Goffman • Rituals: refers to all those simplified, exaggerated, stereotyped behaviors that signal or display particular emotions or social statuses in a situation • Interaction rituals: are the institutionalized, frequently unspoken, ways of behaving in a society. – Example: how to say ‘hello’ and ‘goodbye’ in a culture.
  • 19. Play and Games • Play: in play, there are no rules; the child makes it up as he or she goes along. – Play is the first step toward constructing a “Me” • Games: games have rules and specific roles (e.g. batter, pitcher, catcher, outfielder); the rules specify how the person in each role participates – In Mead’s view, the roles and the rules of games are ‘impersonal’. – Participating in games enhances the ability of children for role-taking, to see other people’s points of view, and to acquire a generalized other (pg. 161)
  • 20. PART II. SOCIALIZATION AND THE SELF
  • 22. Charles H. Cooley “The looking-glass self” • The individual internalizes the attitudes of others toward him/her (“Me”) and responds or reacts to those attitudes (“I”) • The self emerges out of social interaction: selves can only exist in definite relationships to others selves • ‘Generalized Other’: we internalize or anticipate how others we don’t know will expect us to behave; – “the community and society in which we live” (p.261) – The collectively shared consensual meanings in society
  • 23. Charles H. Cooley “The looking-glass self” 1. We imagine how we look to the other person 2. We imagine the other person’s reaction to our appearance 3. In response, we have some feeling, such as pride or shame
  • 24. George Herbert Mead • Influenced by Pragmatism, school of American philosophy • Focus on practical conditions and consequences of action  The Self • Self = Dynamic interaction between the “I” (subject) and the “Me” (object). • The ‘ME’ sees myself as an object, as others see me; the ‘I’ is my response to my perception of how I think others see me in this situation. • Children are not born with an I and a ME!
  • 25. George Herbert Mead • Play: in play, there are no rules; the child makes it up as he or she goes along. – Play is the first step toward constructing a “Me” • Games: games have rules and specific roles (e.g. batter, pitcher, catcher, outfielder); the rules specify how the person in each role participates – In Mead’s view, the roles and the rules of games are ‘impersonal’. – Participating in games enhances the ability of children for role-taking, to see other people’s points of view, and to acquire a generalized other (pg. 161)
  • 26. PART III. TYPES OF INFLUENCE (POWER)
  • 27. INFLUENCE UNINTENDED (unconscious) EMERGENCE 1.FORCE 2.MANIPULATION 3.PERSUASION 4.AUTHORITY Coercive Induced Legitimate Competent Personal Types of Influence
  • 28. Definitions of Power 1. Dennis Wrong: power is the capacity to intentionally influence others. 2. Bertrand Russell: “power is the actual production of intended effects” 3. Max Weber: ‘the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will even against the resistance of others...’ Russell (1872-1970) Weber (1864-1920)
  • 29. Forms of Power (intended influence) I. Force II. Manipulation III. Persuasion IV. Authority: – Coercion, Induced, Legitimate, Competent, and Personal • * Note: all forms of power except ‘force’ must be communicated.
  • 30. 1. Force • Force = treating a human as an object. Note: this only refers to the application of force, not to the threat of force. • Violence is the ultimate form of force: assaulting the body to inflict pain, injury, suffering, or even death. Depiction of slave whippingMedieval torture
  • 31. 2. Manipulation (aka ‘Fraud’) • Definition: any deliberate attempt to influence or elicit a desired response from another person, *where the desired response is not explicitly communicated to the other person* – Spontaneous, informal interaction depends on the shared belief that manipulation isn’t taking place. Shamwow!
  • 32. 3. Persuasion • Persuasion occurs whenever someone agrees with someone else’s arguments or appeals after evaluating them independently in light of his/her own interests. • Persuasion implies a context of open and free communication, with no anticipation of punishments or rewards, i.e. without any felt need to do what the other wants.
  • 33. 4. Authority • Authority is successful ordering or forbidding – A relationship of command and obedience. – Persuasion = tested acceptance; Authority = untested acceptance. • 5 types (based on motivations for obeying): 1. Coercion (punishments, threat of force) 2. Induced (rewards such as money) 3. Legitimate (rights to command, obligations to obey) 4. Competent (based on perceived expertise) 5. Personal (based on desire to please)
  • 34. Personal authority • Personal authority is usually low in extensiveness (# of people it influences): e.g. a lover who declares ‘your wish is my command!’ • But charismatic leaders use personal authority to generate mass followings that challenge the traditional order. Mussolini and Hitler are (negative) examples of charismatic leaders

Hinweis der Redaktion

  1. There are two levels here to evaluate: what is going on, and what people think is going on; the facts, and perceived facts; the world of physical, material objects and the world of meanings ascribed to these objects. The relation between these two levels is often complicated. For example, a sufficient sociological explanation would not only explain to people that what they believe to be true is in fact only partially true or false, but also, to explain what about the real world leads to their being deluded about it in the first place!
  2. http://listverse.com/2008/03/07/10-modern-cases-of-feral-children/http://theunexplainedmysteries.com/Feral-Children.html
  3. Source: Wrong 1988: 24.
  4. Remember the first one by Dennis Wrong. Wrong limits his definition to direct (non-mediated) and unidirectional influence between individuals. He also excludes from consideration power over objects (e.g. nature) or power over one’s self. Power entails achieving a desired influence on someone else. Moreover, if power is a capacity, it is not always directly observable and need not always be exercised. General rule:   the intensity and comprehensiveness of power tend to vary inversely with its extensiveness. (The more people you influence, the more narrow your influence on their lives. It is possible for logistical reasons to influence only a few people (close friends and family, for instance) in intense and comprehensive ways.
  5. “Coercion” is not physical force proper, but is defined as the “threat of force” and falls under the heading “authority.”
  6. Institutions like slavery or other forms of domination cannot rely on force alone. Instead, they have to rely on the threat of force: coercion, which is considered a form of authority.
  7. Occurs when people are used. If the influencer is up-front and open about his/her intentions, then it isn’t manipulation. Manipulation can occur for many purposes: religious proselytizing; monetary gain; sex; etc. Manipulation, by definition, cannot be anticipated.
  8. In persuasion, the content of the communication induces compliance (after being independently evaluated). In authority, the source of the communication induces compliance.