6. PORTUGUESE MALACCA
The news of Malacca's wealth attracted the attention of Manuel
I, King of Portugal and he sent Admiral Diogo Lopes de
Sequeira to find Malacca, to make a trade compact with its ruler as
Portugal's representative east of India.
7. PORTUGUESE MALACCA
Although he was initially well-received by Sultan Mahmud Shah
trouble however quickly ensued.
The international Muslim trading community convinced Mahmud
that the Portuguese were a grave threat. Mahmud subsequently
captured several of his men, killed others and attempted to attack the
four Portuguese ships, although they escaped.
8. PORTUGUESE MALACCA
In April 1511, Alfonso de Albuquerque
set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of
some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen
ships.
Conflict was unavoidable, and after 40 days
of fighting, Malacca fell to the Portuguese on
24 August 1511.
9. PORTUGUESE MALACCA
It soon became clear that
Portuguese control of Malacca did
not also mean they controlled
Asian trade centered there. Their
Malaccan rule was severely
hampered by administrative and
economic difficulties.
10. PORTUGUESE MALACCA
In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company began contesting
Portuguese power in the East. At that time, the Portuguese had transformed
Malacca into an impregnable fortress, the Fortaleza de Malaca, controlling
access to the sea lanes of the Straits of Malacca and the spice trade there.
The Dutch with their local allies assaulted and finally wrested Malacca
from the Portuguese in January 1641.
12. PORTUGUESE TIMOR
The Portuguese first settled on Timor in 1520, and the Spanish
arrived in 1522. The Dutch took possession of the western portion
of the island in 1613. The British governed the island in 1812–15.
The Dutch and the Portuguese fought for supremacy over Timor;
Portuguese sovereignty over the island's eastern half was settled by
treaties in 1860 and 1893, although the latter became effective only in
1914.
13. PORTUGUESE TIMOR
Japanese forces occupied Timor during World War II. East Timor
province, including the Ambeno enclave, thereafter remained in
Portuguese possession until 1975, when one of the major political
parties there, FRETILIN (Frente Revolucionária de Timor Leste
Independente [Revolutionary Front of Independent East
Timor]), gained control of much of the territory and declared its
independence (November) as the Democratic Republic of East
Timor.
14. PORTUGUESE MOLUCCAS
Sought after by many
European nations because of
its famous spices. It is known
as the Spice Islands.
15. PORTUGUESE MOLUCCAS
Apart from some relatively minor cultural influences the most
significant lasting effects of the Portuguese presence was the
disruption and reorganization of the Southeast Asian trade, and in
eastern Indonesia—including Maluku—the introduction of
Christianity.
16. PORTUGUESE MOLUCCAS
After the Portuguese annexed Malacca in August 1511, one Portuguese
diary noted 'it is thirty years since they became Moors‗- giving a sense of
the competition then taking place between Islamic and European
influences in the region. Alfonso de Albuquerque learned of the route
to the Banda Islands and other 'Spice Islands', and sent an exploratory
expedition of three vessels under the command of António de
Abreu, Simão Alfonso Bisigudo and Francisco Serrão.
17. PORTUGUESE MOLUCCAS
Allying himself with Ternate's
ruler, Serrão constructed a fortress on
that tiny island and served as the head
of a mercenary band of Portuguese
seamen under the service of one of the
two local feuding sultans who
controlled most of the spice trade.
18. PORTUGUESE MOLUCCAS
Sometime in the 16th century, there had been encounters between
Spanish and Portuguese.
The Dutch and British soon joined in the conflicts to try to gain a
monopoly over the trade and expel Portugal. The fighting for control over
these small islands became very intense in the 17th and 18th centuries
with the Dutch even giving the island of Manhattan to the British in
exchange for, among other things, the tiny island of Run which gave the
Dutch full control over the Banda archipelago's nutmeg production.
21. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Spanish colonial motives were not, however, strictly commercial.
The Spanish at first viewed the Philippines as a stepping-stone to the
riches of the East Indies (Spice Islands), but, even after the
Portuguese and Dutch had foreclosed that possibility, the Spanish still
maintained their presence in the archipelago.
22. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
The Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan
headed the first Spanish foray to the Philippines when he made
landfall on Cebu in March 1521; a short time later he met an untimely
death on the nearby island of Mactan. After King Philip II (for whom
the islands are named) had dispatched three further expeditions that
ended in disaster, he sent out Miguel López de Legazpi, who
established the first permanent Spanish settlement, in Cebu, in 1565.
24. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
The Spanish city of Manila was founded in 1571, and by the end
of the 16th century most of the coastal and lowland areas from
Luzon to northern Mindanao were under Spanish control. Friars
marched with soldiers and soon accomplished the nominal conversion
to Roman Catholicism of all the local people under Spanish
administration. But the Muslims of Mindanao and Sulu, whom the
Spanish called Moros, were never completely subdued by Spain.
25. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Spanish rule for the first 100 years was exercised in most areas
through a type of tax farming imported from the Americas and
known as the encomienda. But abusive treatment of the local tribute
payers and neglect of religious instruction by encomenderos
(collectors of the tribute), as well as frequent withholding of revenues
from the crown, caused the Spanish to abandon the system by the end
of the 17th century.
26. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Manila dominated the islands not only as the political capital. The
galleon trade with Acapulco, Mex., assured Manila's commercial
primacy as well. The exchange of Chinese silks for Mexican silver not
only kept in Manila those Spanish who were seeking quick profit, but
it also attracted a large Chinese community.
27. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
By the late 18th century, political and
economic changes in Europe were finally
beginning to affect Spain and, thus, the
Philippines. Important as a stimulus to
trade was the gradual elimination of the
monopoly enjoyed by the galleon to
Acapulco.
28. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
The growth of commercial agriculture resulted in the appearance
of a new class. Alongside the landholdings of the church and the rice
estates of the pre-Spanish nobility there arose haciendas of
coffee, hemp, and sugar, often the property of enterprising Chinese-
Filipino mestizos.
29. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Not until 1863 was there public education in the Philippines, and
even then the church controlled the curriculum. Less than one-fifth
of those who went to school could read and write Spanish, and far
fewer could speak it properly. The limited higher education in the
colony was entirely under clerical direction, but by the 1880s many
sons of the wealthy were sent to Europe to study.
30. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
There, nationalism and a passion for reform blossomed in the
liberal atmosphere. Out of this talented group of overseas Filipino
students arose what came to be known as the Propaganda Movement.
Magazines, poetry, and pamphleteering flourished. José Rizal, this
movement's most brilliant figure, produced two political novels—
Noli me tangere (1886; Touch Me Not) and El filibusterismo (1891;
The Reign of Greed)—which had a wide impact in the Philippines.
32. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Rizal was quickly arrested by the overly fearful Spanish, exiled to a
remote island in the south, and finally executed in 1896.
Meanwhile, within the Philippines there had developed a firm
commitment to independence among a somewhat less privileged
class.
Shocked by the arrest of Rizal in 1892, these activists quickly
formed the Katipunan under the leadership of Andres Bonifacio, a
self-educated warehouseman.
34. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
In August 1896, Spanish friars uncovered evidence of the
Katipunan's plans, and its leaders were forced into premature action.
Revolts broke out in several provinces around Manila. After months
of fighting, severe Spanish retaliation forced the revolutionary armies
to retreat to the hills. In December 1897 a truce was concluded with
the Spanish
35. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Emilio Aguinaldo, a municipal mayor and
commander of the rebel forces, was paid a
large sum and was allowed to go to Hong
Kong with other leaders; the Spanish promised
reforms as well. But reforms were slow in
coming, and small bands of rebels, distrustful
of Spanish promises, kept their arms; clashes
grew more frequent
36. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Meanwhile, war had broken out between Spain and the United
States (the Spanish-American War). After the U.S. naval victory in the
Battle of Manila Bay in May 1898, Aguinaldo and his entourage
returned to the Philippines with the help of Adm. George Dewey.
Confident of U.S. support, Aguinaldo reorganized his forces and soon
liberated several towns south of Manila.
37. SPANISH PHILIPPINES
Independence was declared on June 12 (now celebrated as
Independence Day). In September a constitutional congress met in
Malolos, north of Manila, which drew up a fundamental law derived
from European and Latin American precedents. A government was
formed on the basis of that constitution in January 1899, with
Aguinaldo as president of the new country, popularly known as the
―Malolos Republic.‖
42. DUTCH EAST INDIES
From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late sixteenth
century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control
over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous. Although Java
was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent
throughout much of this time including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and
Borneo.
44. DUTCH EAST INDIES
In 1806, with the Netherlands
under French
domination, Napoleon appointed
his brother Louis Bonaparte to the
Dutch throne which led to the 1808
appointment of Marshall Herman
Willem Daendels to Governor
General of the Dutch East Indies.
45. DUTCH EAST INDIES
In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports
including Java and Thomas Stamford Raffles became Lieutenant
Governor. Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824
Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements in
Indonesia, such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding
control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula and Dutch India.
46. DUTCH EAST INDIES
Kingdom by
kingdom, the Dutch
slowly conquered the
whole range that would
form the territory of the
Republic of Indonesia.
47. DUTCH EAST INDIES
During World War II the entire Dutch
East Indies, excepting a part of southern
Netherlands New Guinea, was occupied by
Japan. The years 1945–49 formed a transition
period in which The Netherlands
unsuccessfully tried to regain control of the
islands; the islands achieved independence as
the new nation of Indonesia in 1949.
48. DUTCH EAST INDIES
The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) were administered by the
Dutch East India Company and later the Dutch government. The
Netherlands developed its empire without challenge due to winning
concessions and political influence from local rulers, placing Chinese
in positions of authority and imposing systems of forced labor.
The international Muslim trading community convinced Mahmud that the Portuguese were a grave threat. Mahmud subsequently captured several of his men, killed others and attempted to attack the four Portuguese ships, although they escaped.
The centralized port of exchange of Asian wealth had now gone, as was a Malay state to police the Straits of Malacca that made it safe for commercial traffic. Trade was now scattered over a number of ports among bitter warfare in the Straits.
The centralized port of exchange of Asian wealth had now gone, as was a Malay state to police the Straits of Malacca that made it safe for commercial traffic. Trade was now scattered over a number of ports among bitter warfare in the Straits.
The Portuguese first settled on Timor in 1520, and the Spanish arrived in 1522. The Dutch took possession of the western portion of the island in 1613. The British governed the island in 1812–15. The Dutch and the Portuguese fought for supremacy over Timor; Portuguese sovereignty over the island's eastern half was settled by treaties in 1860 and 1893, although the latter became effective only in 1914. Japanese forces occupied Timor during World War II. East Timor province, including the Ambeno enclave, thereafter remained in Portuguese possession until 1975, when one of the major political parties there, Fretilin (FrenteRevolucionária de Timor LesteIndependente [Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor]), gained control of much of the territory and declared its independence (November) as the Democratic Republic of East Timor. The area was subsequently invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces (in early December) and in 1976 was declared by Indonesia to be an integral part of Indonesia as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor).Over the next two decades tens of thousands of East Timorese died (some observers claim as many as 200,000 perished) resisting the Indonesian occupation and annexation or as a result of famine and disease. In response to mounting international pressure, the Indonesian government authorized a referendum there (August 1999) to determine the future of East Timor. Almost four-fifths of the voters supported independence, and the Indonesian parliament rescinded Indonesia's annexation of the territory. East Timor was returned to its preannexation status of independence, but as a non-self-governing territory under UN supervision. However, the transfer of power was accompanied by violence perpetrated by anti-independence militants. Hundreds were killed, and thousands fled to the western half of the island; refugees subsequently began returning home.