2. Overview
Second messenger system of the body
Uses chemical messages (hormones)
that are released into the blood
Hormones control several major
processes
- Reproduction
- Growth and development
- Mobilization of body defenses
- Maintenance of much of homeostasis
- Regulation of metabolism
3. Overview
Secretion of most hormones is regulated
by a negative feedback system
The number of receptors for a specific
hormone can be altered to meet the body’s
demand
4. Hormone Overview
Hormones are produced by specialized
cells
Cells secrete hormones into extracellular
fluids
Blood transfers hormones to target sites
These hormones regulate the activity of
other cells
5. Chemical Classification
of Hormones
Steroid Hormones:
Lipid soluble
Diffuse through cell membranes
Enter the nucleus
Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus
Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
Activate genes that result in synthesis of new
proteins
6. Chemical Classification
of Hormones
Nonsteroid Hormones:
Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
Hormone does not enter the cell
Sets off a series of reactions that activates
an enzyme
Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second
messenger molecule
Oversees additional intracellular changes to
promote a specific response
7. Negative Feedback System
Negative feedback is the primary
mechanism through which your endocrine
system maintains homeostasis
Secretion of a specific hormone s turned on
or off by specific physiological changes
(similar to a thermostat)
EXAMPLE: plasma glucose levels and
insulin response
9. Pineal Gland
Small pine cone shaped gland that
is part of the thalamus region of the
brain.
Glands secrete melatonin, a
hormone that plays a role in
regulating the body's circadian
rhythm.
10. Hypothalamus
In brain just superior to pituitary
Made of modified nervous tissue
Secretes hormones that are stored
in posterior pituitary
Stimulates pituitary
11. Pituitary gland
“Master gland” of body
Located in the depression of sphenoid bone
Produces many hormones that affect other glands:
− Thyroid stimulating hormone
− Somatotropin- growth hormone
− Lutenizing (LH)- causes ovulation
− ICSH- causes testes to secrete testosterone
− Melanocyte stimulating- distribution of melanin in skin
− ADH- antidiuretic hormone
Secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus in the base
of the brain
12. Thyroid
Found at the base of the throat
Consists of two lobes and a connecting
isthmus
Produces two hormones
− Thyroid hormone
− Calcitonin
13. Thyroid Hormone
Within the colloid are the thyroid
hormones
− Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid
follicles
− Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of
T4 at target tissues
* When stimulated (by TSH or by cold),
these are released into the circulatory
system and ↑ the metabolic rate.
“C” cells within the thyroid produce the
hormone calcitonin.
14. Parathyroid Glands
Tiny masses on the posterior of the
thyroid
Secrete parathyroid hormone:
− Stimulates osterclasts to remove
calcium from bone
− Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to
absorb more calcium
− Raise calcium levels in the blood
15. Thymus
Located on superior surface of the
heart
Thymosin – controls production and
maturation of lymphocytes
Reaches maximum size during
puberty, then shrinks making elderly
people more susceptible to disease
16. Adrenal Glands
Located just above the kidneys
Secretes many hormones
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Many steroid hormones, inc estrogen
and androgens.
The Adrenal Medulla secretes the
catecholamine hormones
norepinephrine and epinephrine
17. Pancreas
Located slightly behind the stomach
Secretes insulin, a type of hormone that transports
glucose into cells. It:
− Promotes glycogenesis
− Inhibits gluconeogensis
Also secretes glucagon which increases glucose in
bloodstream
18. Reproductive Glands
Gonads and Ovaries:
the endocrine glands associated with human
reproduction, both have endocrine functions.
Female ovaries produce eggs
Male gonads produce sperm
19. Reproductive Glands
Ovaries:
Located in the abdominal cavity adjacent to the uterus.
Under the control of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary they
manufacture estrogen and protesterone
Estrogen and Progesterone have several functions, including
sexual development and preparation of the uterus for
implantation of the egg.
Testes:
Located in the scrotum
Produce sperm for reproduction
Manufacture testosterone - promotes male growth and masculinization
Controlled by anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH.
20. Disorders and Illnesses
of the Endocrine System
Endocrine illnesses can mostly be divided
into 3 groups:
− Gland hyposecretion
− Gland hypersecretion
− Abnormal growth
Some examples of these include
− Hypothyroidism (hyposecretion)
− Polycystic ovary syndrome (hypersecretion)
− Goiter (growth)
21. Hypothyroidism
The most common cause of hypothyroidism is inflammation of the thyroid gland,
which damages the gland's cells.
Signs and symptoms:
− A physical examination may reveal a smaller than normal thyroid
gland, although sometimes the gland is normal size or even enlarged
(goiter). The examination may also reveal:
− Brittle nails/ hair, pale or dry skin, swelling of the arms and legs
− A chest x-ray may show an enlarged heart.
Laboratory tests to determine thyroid function include:
− TSH test and T4 test
Lab tests may also reveal:
− Anemia on a complete blood count (CBC)
− Increased cholesterol levels
− Increased liver enzymes
− Increased prolactin
− Low sodium
22. Hypothyroidism
Treatment
− The purpose of treatment is to replace the thyroid
hormone that is lacking. Levothyroxine is the most
commonly used medication. Doctors will prescribe the
lowest dose possible that effectively relieves symptoms
and brings your TSH level to a normal range. If the patient
has heart disease or you are older, his/her doctor may
start with a very small dose.
− Lifelong therapy is required unless the patient has a
condition called transient viral thyroiditis.
− The patient must continue taking his/her medication even
when the symptoms go away. When starting medication,
his/her doctor may check hormone levels every 2 - 3
months. After that, thyroid hormone levels should be
monitored at least every year.
23. Polycystic ovary syndrome
One of the most common female endocrine disorders affecting
5% to 10% of women of reproductive age (12-45 years old)
It is a complex, heterogeneous disorder of uncertain etiology,
but there is strong evidence that it can to a large degree be
classified as a genetic disease
The principal features are:
− Anovulation- resulting in irregular menstruation,
− Amenorrhea- ovulation-related infertility
− Polycystic Ovaries- excessive amounts or effects of
androgenic (masculinizing) hormones, resulting in
acne, hirsutism and insulin resistance, often
associated with obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and high
cholesterol levels.
The symptoms and severity of the syndrome vary greatly
among affected women
24. Polycystic ovary syndrome
Diagnosing PCOS
− History taking, specifically for menstrual pattern,
obesity, hirsutism, and the absence of breast
development
− Gynecologic ultrasonography
− Laparoscopic examination may reveal a thickened,
smooth, pearl-white outer surface of the ovary
− Various lab tests such as lipid profile, fasting glucose
tolerance test, and serum levels of androgens
Treatment
− Diet and exorcise is the best treatment because it
helps to stabilize and regulate the body's hormones
− Medications such as Metformin can help with insulin
resistance, birth control pills can regulate menstrual
cycles, Clomid for infertility, etc.
25. Non-toxic Goiter
Enlargement of the thyroid that is not associated with overproduction of
thyroid hormone or malignancy. The thyroid can become very large so
that it can easily be seen as a mass in the neck.
There are a number of factors that may cause the thyroid gland to
become enlarged:
− A diet deficient in iodine can cause a goiter, but this is rarely
the cause because of the readily available iodine in our
diets.
− A more common cause of goiter in America is an increase in
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in response to a defect in
normal hormone synthesis within the thyroid gland.
Diagnosis of goiter:
− Thyroidal radioactive iodine uptake
− Thyroid scan
− Laboratory tests such as measurement of serum free
thyroxine (free T4) or free T4 index and total triiodothyronine
26. Non-toxic Goiter
Treatment (depending on cause)
− In iodine-deficient areas, iodine supplementation of salt;
oral or IM administration of iodized oil yearly; and
iodination of water, crops, or animal fodder eliminates
iodine-deficiency goiter. Goitrogens being ingested
should be stopped.
− In other instances, suppression of the hypothalamic-
pituitary axis with thyroid hormone blocks TSH production
(and hence stimulation of the thyroid). Full TSH-
suppressive doses of l-thyroxine are useful in younger
patients. l-Thyroxine is contraindicated in older patients
with nontoxic nodular goiter, because these goiters rarely
shrink and may harbor areas of autonomy so that l-
thyroxine therapy can result in hyperthyroidism.
− Large goiters occasionally require surgery or 131I to
shrink the gland enough to prevent interference with
respiration or swallowing or to correct cosmetic
problems.