Social Stratification – Meaning and functions, Caste, Class and Race, Social Mobility – Concept and types of social mobility - Social Institutions - Marriage, Family, Education, Religion – Meaning, Types and Functions - Political Institutions - Concept of State, Government, Democracy

1. UNIT II
SOCIALSTRATIFICATION – MEANINGAND FUNCTIONS,CASTE,CLASSAND RACE, SOCIAL
MOBILITY– CONCEPTANDTYPESOF SOCIALMOBILITY- SOCIALINSTITUTIONS- MARRIAGE,
FAMILY,EDUCATION,RELIGION – MEANING,TYPESAND FUNCTIONS- POLITICALINSTITUTIONS-
CONCEPTOF STATE,GOVERNMENT,DEMOCRACY

2. Social Stratification
• Everywhere individuals and societies differ
• In no society people are absolutely equal in all respects.
• In all societies there is social differentiation of the population by age, sex, occupation
and personal characteristics.
• There are no equalitarian societies in the world

3. Social Stratification
• Human society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous
• Men differ from one another (intellectual, moral, philosophical, mental, economic,
political and other aspects are different)
• Stratification is simply a process of interaction of differentiation whereby some
people come to rank higher than others.

4. Social Stratification - Definitions
• Ogburn and Nimkoff: “The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a
more or less enduring hierarchy of status in known as stratification”
• Gisbert: “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of
categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and
subordination”
• Raymond W. Murry: “social stratification is a horizontal division of society into ‘high’
and ‘lower’ social unity”

5. Characteristics
• It is social
• It is ancient
• It is universal
• It is in diverse forms
• It is consequential

6. Origin
• Theory of economic determinism or the conflict theory
• Functionalist theory

7. Functions
• Encourages hard work
• Ensures circulation of elites
• Serves an economic function
• Prevents waste of resources
• Stabilizes and reinforces the attitudes and skills
• Helps to pursue different professions or jobs
• Social controls
• Controlling effect on the ‘shady’ world

8. Caste
• India's caste system is among the world's oldest forms of social stratification
surviving to this day
• MacIver and Page: “when status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to
their lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of
caste”
• D. N. Majumdar and T. N. Madan have said that cast is a ‘closed group’

9. ORIGIN OF CASTE

10. Origin of Caste
• The first mention of ‘Varna’ is found in Rig-Veda i.e. in the Vedic era around 1500
B.C
• During the later Vedic era i.e. around 1000 B.C there has been a mention of “Asat
Shudra” (Untouchable community). Thus, untouchability started around 1000 B.C
• In a verse from the first millennium epic, the Mahabharata, Bhrigu, the sage
explains: "The brahmins are fair, the kshatriyas are reddish, the vaishyas yellow and
the sudras are black."

11. Contin……
• The 5th group in the hierarchy, were the "outcastes" or "untouchables", known by
different names such as chandalas, panchamas, svapachas, antyajas, atishudras,
(progeny of pratiloma union) etc.
• During the early days. Although they lived on the fringes of society, they were still
very much a part of mainstream society as the tasks of scavenging, cleaning up after
funerals, killing or hunting animals for food, working in leather and other unclean
materials, all fell to them.

12. Caste hierarchy

13. Theories of Caste System
Traditional Theory:-
• The caste system is of divine (godly) origin.
• According to this theory castes were created by Brahma in order to make human beings to
harmoniously (part of body) perform various social functions necessary for the maintenance of
society
• According to Manu, the prohibited pratiloma marriage was the cause of the origin of
untouchability.
• Children born out of such marriage were kept out of the Varna fold and were branded as Chandalas
who constituted an untouchable group.

14. Racial Theory
o According to Dr. Majumdar, the caste system took its birth after the arrival of Aryans in
India.
o In order to maintain their separate existence, the Indo-Aryans used for certain groups and
orders of people the favorite word 'Varna,' 'Colour.'
o Thus mainly two prominent groups Aryan and Dasa varna became known not by their
occupations or other characteristics but by their colour.
o Rig Vedic literature stresses very significantly the difference between the Aryan and Dasa,
not only in their colour but also in their speech, religious practices and features.
o The ‘Dasa’ or ‘Dasyus’ means slaves or servant were placed in the lowest strata of the society
and deprived them of all social and religious ceremonies.

15. Religious Theory
o The Hindu religion, as mentioned above, through its priestly class, propagated the divinity of
the Varna and Caste System emphasizing the same to be the creation of God and hence
unchangeable and life-long and leaving no scope for modification, amendment or change in
the same system.
o As the same is creation of God, man has no right to effect any change, whatsoever, in the
Varna or Caste System was the main thrust of religious theory.
o This theory was further supported and strengthened the theory of "Karma" and "Rebirth" i.e.
"Punarjanma."
o The Shudras are suffering the sins of their previous birth was the justification offered by the
scriptures and propagated by the 'dwij' varna.

16. Political Theory
Caste System is a cleaver device invented by the Brahmins in order to place themselves on
the highest ladder of social hierarchy. 'Caste' is a Brahminic child of Indo-Aryan culture
cradled in the land of the Ganges and thence transferred to other parts of India, says Dr. G.S.
Ghurye.
The first three castes are called 'Dwija’ because they have to go through the initiation
ceremony which is symbolic of re-birth. The Shudra was called 'Ekjati' (one born).
 The God created Shudra to be the slave of all. He is given the name of "Padaja" (born from
the feet).
Then distinction began based on purity and impurity.

17. 5.Occupational Theory:-
(i) Better and Respectable Profession = Superior.
(ii) Dirty Profession = Inferior
The persons or castes engaged in better and respectable profession used to consider them superior
and the persons or castes engaged in manual and dirty profession were treated as inferior in the
social setup of the day which is continuing till date world over but in India touch- me-not-ism
entered into the social setup whereas the same seems to be absent elsewhere in the world.
• Nesfield says that, "function and function alone is responsible for the origin of Caste Structure in
India." With functional differentiation there came in occupational differentiation and numerous
sub-castes such as Lohar(Blacksmith), Sonar(Goldsmith), Chamar(Cobler), Barhai (carpenter),
Nai(Barber), weavers etc. came into existence

18. Guild Theory
oAs per Guild theory, specific occupation, trade, business, calling, commerce indulged
in by a group of people created a class or caste which followed same means of
livelihood which resulted in social bond knitting them together for all social and
economic common goal, aims and objectives.
oThis is a system by which the resources, methods and profits of each industry should
be controlled by a council of its members.
oIn India such guild used to be formed of individuals of the same caste or varna
which in a way supported Varna System and Caste System, rather perpetuated the
same providing all nourishment to the system with pride and glory

19. Evolutionary theory
• This theory reveals that the caste system did not emerge all of a sudden or at a
particular date it evolved gradually
• Factors responsible for the evolution of caste system are:
• Hereditary occupation
• the intention of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure
• beliefs in the ideas of karma and rebirth
• ideas of exclusive family, ancestor worship and the sacramental meal
• racial clashes and colour prejudices
• geographical isolation of Indian peninsula
• static nature of Hindu Society
• foreign invasions
• Rural economic structure.

20. Characteristics of Caste
• Caste – as a hierarchical division of society
• Caste- as a segmental division of society (Caste Panchayat)
• Restrictions on food habits
• Restrictions of social relations
• Social and religious disabilities of certain castes
• The civil and religious privileges of certain castes
• Restriction on occupational choice
• Restriction on marriage

21. Class
• Social class is a principal type of social stratification
• Especially in the modern civilized countries
• Caste system is unique to India, the class system is universal in nature.

22. Definition
• Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘A social class is aggregate of person having essentially
the same social status in a given society’
• MacIver and Page: ‘A social class is any portion of the community marked off
from the rest by social status’
• Lapire: ‘ A social class is culturally defined group that is accorded a particular
position of status within the population as a whole’

23. Demerits of Caste
• Denies mobility of labour
• Untouchability
• Wrong man in occupation
• Obstacle to national unity
• Obstacle to social progress
• Undemocratic
• Promotes catechism

24. Merits of Caste
• Trade unions and orphanage
• Spirit of cooperation
• Defines economic pursuits
• Racial purity
• Influences intellectual make-up
• Interaction of the country
• Provides fro various functions
• Cultural diffusions
• Separation of social from political life

25. Characteristics of social class
• Class- a status group
• Achieved status and not ascribed status
• The class system is universal
• Mode of feeling
• Element of prestige
• Element of stability
• Mode of living
• Social class- an open group
• Social class-an economic group
• Classification of social classes
• Class consciousness

26. Difference between caste and class
Caste
• Particular: unique to India and
hence it is not universal
• Ascribed Status: By Birth. Status
can neither be changed for be
improved
• Closed system: restricts social
mobility
• Divine origin: believed to have had
a divine origin. Closely associated
with Hindu religion
Class
• Universal : by nature. It is found
almost all the modern complex
societies
• Achieved status: by Individuals.
Status can be changed or improved
• Open system: individuals can move
from the lower class to the upper
class
• Secular: it has nothing to do with
religion

27. Caste
• Purity and impurity: Some castes
are called ‘pure’ while others are
regarded as ‘impure’
• Regulation of relations: Controls the
activities and regulates the relations
of its members to a great extent.
• Greater social distance:
Comparatively a greater distance
being kept between different castes
• Conservative: Ridden system tends
to become conservative, orthodox
Class
• Feeling of Disparity : On the part of
members of class. There is no
practice of untouchability
• Limits Relations: The range of
contacts and communications of its
members. Individuals are more free
in a class.
• Less Social Distance: Members are
tolerant than others
• Progressive: Classes give more
freedom to the members.

28. Caste
• Endogamous group: Every caste
members has to marry within the
group. Inter-caste marriages are not
allowed
• Complexity: The very face that
more than 2800 castes and sub-
castes are found in India
• Caste-consciousness: More
dangerous to democracy. Endanger
the growth of national ‘sentiments
and unity’
Class
• Not Endogamous: The members
are free to select his or her life
partner
• Simplicity: There are only three
classes i) upper, ii) middle and iii)
lower
• Class-consciousness: Not inimical
to democracy. Never disturbs the
growth of national sentiments.

29. Race
• Race is a modern concept
• Sociologists and other social scientists believe that race is a socially
constructed concept.
• It is an idea that was created in society to justify inequality.
• It is a biological concept
• Race cannot be equated with the colour of the skin.
• E.g.: Indians speak English language but that does not make them English.

30. Race is Not a Biological Concept
• Wide variety of skin colors, hair textures, limp-to-trunk ratios and other
characteristics such as distinctive nose, lip, eyelid forms and so on.
• Some have defined a race as a group of people separated from other groups
by a distinctive combination of physical characteristics.
• Such a definition invites problems, because of intermixing, overlapping and
the gradual shading of physical characteristics.
• Thus, a race is not a biologically distinct grouping of people.

31. Definition
• A. W. Green, “ A race is a large, biological, human grouping, with a number of
distinctive inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range”.
• Doas Franz “ Race as a scientific concept applies only to the biological
groupings of human types”.
• Mazumdar “ a group of individuals is said to bong to a ac hen a its members
share in common certain significant physical traits that are transmitted
biologically through the mechanism of heredity
• Lapiere and Dawson an Gettys also have used the word ethnic group in place
of race

32. Definition
• Horton and hunt: “ A race is a group of people somewhat different from what
other groups in its combination of inherited physical characteristics, but race is
also substantial determined by popular social definition”
• Richard T. Schaefer : “ the term racial group is used to describe a group which
is set apart from others because of obvious physical differences”
• N. J. Smelser : “ Racial group is a kind of ethnic group, one that is set apart
from others by some combination of inherited biological traits such as – skin
color, facial features and stature”

33. Rejection of the Conventional Three – Fold Classification
of Races
• Race is more regarded in social terms than biological, for decades together it
was regarded as a human category based n biological qualities.
• Three major races:
• The Caucasoid Race : which included most people of Europe, the Middle
East, and India as well
• The Mongoloid Race : which included most Japanese, Chinese, Nepalese,
Koreans, Vietnamese
• The Negroid Race : which included black African people, and the American
Negroes and their descendants.

34. Determinants of race
• The form, color and distribution of the hair on the had, the face and the body;
hair forms are grouped as i) leiotrichy (soft straight hair) as of the Mongols and
chines; ii) Cymotrichy (smooth curly hair) as of the inhabitants of India,
Western Europe , Australia and North Africa iii) Ulotrichy (thick curly hair) as of
the Negroes.
• The principal diameter of the body, stature, chest and shoulders
• The form of the head, especially the length and breadth of the skull, the face
and length and breadth of the nose; heads area classified into i) Doichocphaic,
ii) Meso-cephalic, iii) Bachcphalic
• The facial characteristics such as the nasal forms, lip-form, the form of eye-
lids, check bones, chin, ear and jaws; Nasal forms are classified into three
types i) leptorrhine, ii) Mesorrhine and iii) Platyrrhine

35. • The complexion of the skin and eyes; of the colour of the skin three
distinctions are made i) Leucoderm ii) Xanthoderm iii) Melanoderm
• The length of the arms and of the leg
• Blood types. There are four types of blood , O, A, B and AB. Blood type O can
be successfully mixed with A, B, AB but the other three cannot be generally
mixed.

36. Social Mobility
• Indian society is based on the caste system is often regarded as a ‘closed
group’
• Some kind of mobility is observed
• Lower castes have often tried to claim higher status by imitating the life-styles
of upper-castes particularly of Brahmins and Kshatriyas.
• M. N. Srinivas used the term ‘Sanskritisation’ to denote such a type of
process.
• The upper castes including Brahmins, on the contrary, have started orienting
their life-styles on the model of the westerners.
• The term ‘Westernization’ introduced by M. N. Srinivas describes this process.

37. Sanskritisation
• M. N. Srinivas (1962) described ‘The process of mobility of lower castes by
adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism to move in the caste hierarchy in a
generation or two’
• M. N. Srinivas (1971) redefined as ‘a process by which a low caste or a tribe
or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the
direction of a high and frequently, twice-born caste’

38. Sanskritisation and Brahminisation
• Sanskritisation is a broader tern and it can subsume in itself the narrower
process of brahminisation
• The reference groups of Sanskritisation are not always brahmins.

39. Process of Sanskritisation
• Lower castes try to imitate the life-styles of upper castes in their attempt to
raise their social status
• Upward mobility
• Positional changes.
• It is not new phenomenon- the process has been universal.
• It is not necessarily confined to the castes within the Hindu community , it is
found in tribal community also.
• It does not take place in the same manner in all the places.
• British rule in India provided a favorable atmosphere for Sanskritisation to take
place
• It does not automatically result in the achievement of a higher status for the
group.

40. Westernization
• It has been very significant in understanding the socio-cultural changes of
modern India.
• British rule produced radical and lasing changes in the Indian society and
culture.

41. Definition
• According the M. N. Srinivas, “ Westernization” refers to “ the changes
brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of
British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels –
technology, institutions, ideology, values.
• M. N. Srinivas says that it is necessary “ to distinguish conceptually between
Westernization and two other processes usually concouilaid with it –
industrialization and Urbanization

42. Features of Westernization
• In comparison with Sanskritisation, westernization is a simpler concept.
• An active concern for the welfare of all human beings irrespective of caste.
• It not only includes the introduction of new institutions ( newspaper, elections,
Christian missionaries ) but also fundamental changes in old institutions
(school, army, civil service and law courts)
• The form and pace of westernization of India varied from region to region and
from one section of population to another. (dress, sports, diet and etc)

43. Features of Westernization
• It pervades political and cultural fields also.
• The term westernization unlike ‘Modernization’ is ethically neutral. Its use does
not carry the implication that it is good or bad , whereas modernization is
normally used in the sense that it is good.
• The increase in westernization does not retard the process of Sanskritisation

44. Modernization
• It is understood as a process which indicates the adoption of the modern ways
of life and values
• Daniel Lerner who introduced the term modernization- middle eastern
societies- the changes brought about in a non-western country by contract,
direct or indirect with a western country.
• Modernization is the current term for an old process of social change whereby
less developed societies acquire the characteristics common to more
developed societies.
• Alatas “Modernization is a process by which modern scientific knowledge is
introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and a
more satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the term as accepted by the
society concerned”

45. Modernization
• Industrialization of economy and adopting a scientifically technology in
industry , agriculture, dairy farming etc
• Secularization of ideas-that is , a diffusion of secular-rational norms in culture
• A remarkable increase in geographic and social mobility which includes
occupational mobility also
• A spread of scientific and technical education
• A transition from ascribed to achieved status
• An increase in material standard of living

46. Modernization
• High proportion of working force employed in secondary and tertiary rather
than primary production, that is, manufacturing and services as opposed to
agriculture and fishing
• An increment of mobility in the society, understood in terms of urbanization,
spread of literacy and media participation
• High expectancy of life at birth
• Relatively greater measure of public participation on the polity

47. Causes of modernization
• Education
• Mass Communication
• Ideology Based on Nationalism
• Charismatic Leadership
• Coercive governmental authority
• Others factors

48. Social Institutions
• Marriage
• Family
• Education Meaning, Types and Functions
• Religion

49. Marriage
• Marriage is one of the universal social institution
• It is established by the human society to control and regulate the sex life of man
• As Gillin and Gillin said “Marriage is a socially approved way establishing a family of
procreation”.
• Marriage is an institution of society which can have very different implications in
different cultures.
• It purposes, functions and forms may differ from society to society, but it is present
everywhere as an institution.

50. Definition
• Edward Westermarck in his “History of Human Marriages” - the more or less durable
connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of
propagation till after the birth offspring.
• Malinowski says that marriage is a “connection for the production and
maintenance of children”.
• Alfred McClung Lee writes, ‘Marriage is the pubic joining together, under
socially specified regulations of a man and woman as husband and wife’.

51. Characteristics of Marriage
• Universality: more or less a universal institution. It is found among the pre-
literate as well as literate people.
• Relationship between Man and Woman: It is a union of man and woman.
• Marriage bond is Enduring: It is a long lasting bond between the husband and
wife. Hence it is not coextensive with sex life.
• Marriage requires social approval: a union of man and woman becomes a
material bond only when the society gives its approval.
• Marriage is associated with some civil or religious ceremony
• Marriage creates mutual obligations

52. Functions of marriage
• Regulation of sex life
• Marriage leads to the establishment of the family
• Provides for economic cooperation
• Marriage contributes to emotional and intellectual interstimulation of the
partners
• Marriage aims at social solidarity

53. Types of marriages
• Polygyny
• Polyandry
• Monogamy
• Group marriage
• Endogamy
• Exogamy

54. Polygyny
• It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a
given time.
• i) sororal polygyny, ii) non-sororal polygyny
• Sororal polygyny is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the
sisters.
• Non – sororal polygyny is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related
as sisters.

55. Polyandry
• It is the marriage of one woman with several man
• Fraternal polyandry ii) non – Fraternal polyandry
• Fraternal polyandry : when several bothers share the same wife, the practice
can be called alelphic or Fraternal polyandry
• Non - Fraternal polyandry : the husband need not have any close relationship
prior to the marriage.
• The wife goes to spend some time with each husband.
• So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands, the other have no claim
over her.

56. Monogamy
• It is the form of marriage in which one man marries one woman.
• This is the most widespread form of marriage found among the primitives as
well as the civilized people.
• Advantages :
• Universally Practicable
• Economically Better Suited
• Promotes Better Understanding Between Husband And Wife
• Contributes To Stable Family And Sex Life
• Helps To Better Socialization
• Ages Parents Are Not Neglected
• Provides Better Status For Women

57. Group Marriage
• The marriage of two or more women with two or more men.
• The husbands and wives are common.
• Example : two Toda brothers marry two women as their common wives

58. Endogamy
• It is a rule of marriage in which the life partners are to be selected within the
group.
• It is marriage within the group , and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race,
village, religious group etc.

59. Exogamy
• It is rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group,
• It prohibits marrying within the group.
• Forms of exogamy
• Gotra Exogamy
• Pravara Exogamy (uttering the name of a common saint at religious functions)
• Village Exogamy (ex. Naga, Garo, Munda)
• Pinda Exogamy (common pa rentage)

60. Family
• Family is the most important primary group in society.
• Eliot and Merril : Family is “ the biological social unit composed of husband,
wife and children”.
• MacIver: family is “ a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and
enduring to provide for the precreation and upbringing of children”

61. Characteristics of Family
• A Mating Relationship – man and woman establish mating relation between
them
• Selection of Mates – wife or husband may be selected by parents or by the
elders. Various rules govern this selection
• A Form of Marriage – monogamy, polygamy, polyandry or group marriage
• A System of Nomenclature – recognized by a distinctive name
• A Way of Tracing the Decent – social recognition of biological relationship
between individuals. (Patrilineal Descent, Matrilineal Descent or Bilateral
Descent)
• A Common Residence
• An Economic Provision

62. Functions of the Family
• The family as a social institution performs several functions
• Kingsley Devis (four main functions)
• Reproduction
• Maintenance
• Placement
• Socialization
• Ogburn and Nimkoff (Six Major Functions)
• Affectional
• Economic
• Recreational
• Protective
• Religious
• Educational

63. Types of Family
• Nuclear Family
• A small group composed of husband and wife and immature children which
constitutes a unit apart from the rest of the community
• Joint Family
• A group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at
one hearth, who hold property in common, and who participate in common
family worship and are related to each other as some particular type of
kindred.

64. Education
• Education is one of the basic activities of people in all human societies.
• The term ‘education’ is derived from latin word educare which literally means
to ‘bring up’ – verb ‘educare’ which means to ‘bring forth’.
• As Perter Worsely says ‘ A large part of our social and technical skills are
acquired through deliberate instruction which we call education. It is the main
waking activity of children from the ages of five to fifteen and often beyond’.

65. Definition
• Durkheim : The socialisation of the younger generation.
• A continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling and acting
which he could not have arrived at spontaneously.
• F. J. Brown and J. S. Rpicek say that education is “the sum total of the
experience which moulds the attitudes and determines the conduct of both the
child and the adult.

66. Social Functions of Education
• To complete the socialization process
• To transmit the central heritage
• For the formation of social personality
• Reformation of attitudes
• Education for occupational placement – an instrument of livelihood
• Conferring of status
• Education encourages the spirit of competition

67. Religion
• Man, the social animal, is also a religious or spiritual being.
• Religion is not a phenomenon of recent emergence
• Its beginning is unknown.
• Religion revolves round man’s faith in the supernatural forces.

68. Definiton
• Durkhiem – religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to
sacred things, that is to say things set apart and forbidden”.
• MacIver and Page – “Religion as we understand the term, implies a
relationship not merely between man and man but also between man and
some higher power”

69. Basic Components of Religion
• Belief in Supernatural Forces
• Man’s Adjustment with the Supernatural Forces
• Acts, Defined as Righteous and Sinful or Sacred and the Profane
• Some Methods of Salvation

70. Structural aspects of Religion
Theologies and Creeds
Ceremony and Ritual
Symbolism
Religious Codes
Sects
Festivals
Sacred Literature
Myth
Mysticism

71. Functions of Religion
• Religion provides religious experience
• Religion provides peace of mind
• Religion provides social solidarity, unity and identity
• Religion conserves the value of life
• Religion – As an Agent of Social Control
• Priestly function of Religion
• Religion promotes welfare
• Religion provides recreation
• Religion explains individual suffering and helps to integrate personality
• Religion enhances self-importance

72. Dysfunctions of Religion
• Religion inhibits protests and impedes social changes
• Hampers the adaptation of society to changed condition
• Religion increases conflict and makes the evolution of realistic solutions more
difficult.
• Impedes the development of new identities
• Religion may foster dependence and irresponsiblity

73. Political institution
• Politics is essentially an ancient and universal experience.
• “whether he likes it or not, virtually no one is completely beyond the reach of some
kind of political system. A citizen encounters politics in the government of a country,
town school, church. Business firm, trade union, club, political party, civic
association – Politics is one of the unavoidable facts of human existence. Everyone is
involved in some fashion at some time in some kind of political system” (Rebert A.
Dahl)

74. Power
• The ability to achieve goals even if some people in the society hold differing opinions
and goals.

75. Classification of Political System
• Aristotle :
1. Kingship (Monarchy)
2. Tyranny (Rule by one)
3. Aristocracy
4. Oligarchy (Rule by few)
5. Polity
6. Democracy (Rule by many)
• Max Weber – political system depends upon the nature of its legitimacy.
• Legitimacy rests on three factors:
1. Tradition
2. Exceptional Personal Qualities or Charismatic Personality
3. Legality

76. GOVERNMENT
• A group of people that governs a community or unit. It sets and administers public
policy and exercises executive, political and sovereign power through customs,
institutions, and laws within a state.
Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/government.html

77. Aristocracy
• This word literally means "rule by the best" aristocracy, Though often aligned with
plutocracy, or governments ruled by the wealthy
• It does not solely have to do with wealth.
• It may also deal with elitism or other forms of ruling power.

78. Autocracy
• This is a political system governed by a single individual.
• The origin and meaning of "autocrat" Greek term that when translated into English
means, "self-ruler."

79. Coalition
• Typified as a form of government that usually involves the collaboration of several
party groups, it is said that coalitions tend to be common among countries engaging
in war.
• This is because during wartime, no party is controlling the government and, in order
to retain some degree of structure, parties collaborate to provide direction and
stability.

80. Communism
• In communist societies, the dominant feature is the push to equalize the social
conditions of life by abolishing the rights and possessions of its citizens.
• While this structure is presented as a method for accomplishing productivity, it is in
fact a system under which individuals are not permitted to own anything privately.
• Rather, all properties are owned and distributed by the government with the equal
utility of goods being the intended purpose.

81. Conservatism
• More of a philosophy than a governmental system, conservatism reinforces the
sentiments currently held by the majority.
• Thus, it tends to encourage change only in moderate doses.
• As conservatism upholds the value of tradition, its serves a vital role in the
preservation of favourable aspects of the past.

82. Imperialism
• This is the policy that aims to build and maintain an empire in which many states
and peoples spread over a wide geographical area are controlled by one dominant
state.

83. Pluralism
• This is a form of democracy in which governing is carried out by means of a series of
bargaining and compromising between competing leadership groups, such as
business executives, labour parties, government officials, and others.

84. Socialism
• Even though the word "socialism" sounds like a positive idea wherein ruling
structures are formulated based upon the shared ideals of the people, upon
implementation, it more closely mirrors the structure of communism than that of
pluralism.

85. DEMOCRACY
• Democracy as a political system
• i.e., as a form of government, has become politically the most fashionable one today.
• Burns says “Democracy is a word with many meanings and some emotional colour”
• “Few words have been more loosely and variously defined than democracy. It has
almost literally meant all things to all men.”

86. Definition
• Abraham Lincoln : “government of the people by the people and for the people”
• Gettell defines “ that form of government in which the mass of the population
possesses the right to share in the exercise of sovereign power”
• Aristotle democracy was “a perverted form of popular rule”

87. Forms of Democracy
• Direct Democracy
• Indirect Democracy

88. Direct Democracy
• It also known as pure democracy and simple democracy
• People themselves take direct part in the affairs of the state, in passing laws and in
executing them.
• People exercise power directly.
• This kind of democracy can exist and function only in small states with limited
population, where all the people can conveniently assemble at a given place and pass
laws.
• Ancient city-state of Greece
• It cannot be put into practice in the modern complex societies.

89. Indirect Democracy
• Modern states, are generally very large in size and population.
• Direct democracy cannot function in these states
• Modern democracy is mostly indirect or a representative democracy.
• It an indirectly democracy the government is run by the representatives who are
elected periodically by the people.
• The people judge the representatives by their deeds
• If they are found to be efficient they re re-elected, otherwise, new members are
elected.
• Still, the people do not have direct control over the representatives, when once they
are elected.
• They may fail to perform their duties properly.
• India, I.S.A., I.K., France, Japan

90. India