A Lecture on the Christopher Alexander’s books The Nature of Order. by Antonio Caperna

ISB SUMMER SCHOOL 2013: NEUROERGONOMICS AND URBAN PLACEMAKING
A Lecture on the Christopher
Alexander’s booksAlexander s books
THE NATURE OF ORDER
Byy
Dr. Antonio Caperna, PhD
www.biourbanism.org
antonio.caperna@biourbanism.org
The Nature of Order, by Antonio Caperna PhD

CONTENTS
 The nature of “Order” The nature of Order
 Wholeness
 Centers
 15 Geometrical Properties 15 Geometrical Properties

A new vision of Architecture
To make buildings which have
lif d f d dlife and profound order

A new vision of Architecture
“I have tried to construct a
coherent picture of life oncoherent picture of life on
earth, which makes sense of
these matters and gives usthese matters, and gives us
something to live for, and
worth living for”worth living for

…”a new view of ourselves
in relation to the world.
This view ultimately
nourishes (and if accepted,
could become the foundationcould become the foundation
of) a new kind of hope — a
hope that is all the morehope that is all the more
profound because it links
together knowledge from
philosophy, science, and
religion, and helps us to
experience the wholenessexperience the wholeness
of the whole”

lifelife
The 20th Century scientific conception of life as
i ( b h d itorganism (any carbon-oxygen-hydrogen-nitrogen
system)
Is a virus, a forest alive?,

Each thing – regardless of what it is – has
some degree of lifesome degree of life
This conceptionThis conception
 has scientific evidence
 has a solid basis in math and physics of the space has a solid basis in math and physics of the space
 furnish us a single coherent conception of the world

THE NATURE OF ORDER
THE NATURE OF ORDER
What exactly do we mean by order?
“order” that it is able to help us create life in a building
Order as mechanical order
How things work as
Order as product of
generative computable
processHow things work as
mechanism
process
A d f i thiAn order of a growing thing
in which one system
UNFOLDS continuously to
form another

O d t d d b i t ti
Order as any system produced by interacting
generative morphological rules
(e.g. biological order, an order of a growing thing in which one system
unfold continuously to form another;
t t l f th ki d d fi d b Ch k i lstructural grammars of the kinds defined by Chomsky are a special cases
of this kind of order – see Chomsky N., Structural linguistics)
Alan Turing, The chemical basis of Morphogenesis

A NEW VISION OF ARCHITECTURE
Order as new relationship between function
and ornament.
There is no difference between functional order andThere is no difference between functional order and
ornamental order.
They are different aspect of a single kind of order

Order that exists in a leaf or in
a Mozart symphony
A harmonious coherence
with fills us and touches us
This order can’t be
represented as a machine

WHOLENESS AND ITSWHOLENESS, AND ITS
BUILDING BLOCKS:
THE CENTERSTHE CENTERS

What is wholeness?at s o e ess

A phenomenon has been observed in artifacts. It
b ll d “lif ” “ h l ”may be called “life” or “wholeness.”
This quality has been noticed in certain works of
t tif t b ildi bli tart, artifacts, buildings, public space, rooms, parts
of buildings, and in a wide range of other human
tif tartifacts

AN INTUITIVE MODEL OF WHOLENESS
WHOLENESS AND VALUE A S A NECESSARY PART
OF ANY COMPLEX SYSTEM
AN INTUITIVE MODEL OF WHOLENESS AS A RECURSIVE
STRUCTURESTRUCTURE

That the thing we recognize as the "gestalt’ of a figure
That the thing we recognize as the gestalt of a figure,
the pattern of flows in a hydrodynamic field, the
"something" about an individual human face whichsomething about an individual human face which
seems like that person’s wholeness, and which we
recognize instantly is in each case a describablerecognize instantly, is – in each case -- a describable
mathematical structure.
However, there was no then-existing mathematical
structure I knew of, which was able to capture thisp
"something" or which could embody it.

wholeness is crucial issue
The wholeness is that global structure which pays attention to, and captures,
the relative strength of different parts of the system, paying attention both to
the way they are nested in one another, and how the pattern of strength varies
ith th tiwith the nesting.
…
As a result of experiments I conducted at the Center for Cognitive Studies atAs a result of experiments I conducted at the Center for Cognitive Studies at
Harvard in the early 1960s, I became convinced that wholeness, "the
wholeness we see," is a real, well-defined structure, not merely a cognitive
impressionimpression.
That the thing we recognize as the "gestalt’ of a figure, the pattern of flows in a
hydrodynamic field, the "something" about an individual human face which
seems like that person’s wholeness, and which we recognize instantly, is – in
each case -- a describable mathematical structure.
However, there was no then-existing mathematical structure I knew of, whicho e e , t e e as o t e e st g at e at ca st uctu e e o , c
was able to capture this "something" or which could embody it.

THE IDEA OF WHOLENESS
Cosmology - Mach's Principle: gravitational constant G is a function of all
the matter existing in the universe
Ecology - James Lovelock: Gaia….. A planet as a single organism
Medicine - J. S. Haldane’s explanation of the impossibility of drowning any
definite boundary around an organism showed that there is an inseparable
quality in which organism and environment are bound together and exist asquality in which organism and environment are bound together and exist as
a whole

WHOLENESS
“Einstein revealed that we do not live in a universe with
discrete, physical objects separated by dead space. The
Universe is one indivisible, dynamic whole in which energy
and matter are so deeply entangled it is impossible to
consider them as independent”

PHYSICAL MODEL OF WHOLENESS
Sequential-digital: Reading the strips left to right

The primary entities of which thep y
wholeness structure is built are
centers, centers that become
activated in the space as a result
of the configuration as a whole.g

CentersCenters
The crux of this matter is this:The crux of this matter is this:
a CENTER is a kind of entity which can only be
defined in term of other centers.
The idea of a center cannot be defined in terms
of any other primitive entities except centersof any other primitive entities except centers.

Centers
In math such concept is called recursively
(see R.L. Goodstein, “Recursive number theory: a development of a recursive
arithmetic in a logis free equation calculus”)arithmetic in a logis free equation calculus )
In The Power of Centers, Rudolf Arnheim use the centers as
th f d t l b ildi bl k f lif h lthe fundamental building block of life or wholeness
Centers as foundation of R.J. Boscovich theory’s of mattery
(A Theory of Natural Philosophy)

The Power of Centers, R.
Arnheim
In the d namic sense aIn the dynamic sense, a
center is a focus of energy
from which the vector radiatefrom which the vector radiate
into the environment.

Center as a field
A scalar field such as
temperature or pressuretemperature or pressure,
where intensity of the field
is graphically representedis graphically represented
by intensity of the color.
In physics, a scalar is a simple physical quantity (e.g. mass, temperature, etc.)

Center as a field
Each part of the field points in some direction, towards some otherEach part of the field points in some direction, towards some other
centers.
Here we see wholeness, not merely as a nested system of centers but as
an ordered system in which the way that different centers and sub centersan ordered system in which the way that different centers and sub-centers
help each other creates the field effect.

Each Center is a field of other centers (recursive
definition of centers)definition of centers)
There are no ultimate elementary components ofThere are no ultimate elementary components of
the field, except the centers themselves
This is the foundation of living structure

LIVING CENTERS (LC)
Physical system that has
geometrical characters able to
support and favourish activities.
Living center as
organized field
force
Restoration of Latent od dameged centersClassification g
15 geometrical proprieties (*)
 Patterns
 Living Centers
 Latent
 D d Damaged

Quality of life seems to be correlated
with the repeated appearance ofwith the repeated appearance of
fifteen geometric properties—or
geomet ical in a iants that appeageometrical invariants—that appear
throughout the object’s configuration

“The fifteen properties are the ways in
which living centers can support otherwhich living centers can support other
living centers.

geometric properties
ll li i t t i d d ll “ d” t t…all living structure — indeed all “good” structure
would be composed of these fifteen fundamental
tiproperties
… these properties were not confined to buildings
and works of art.
They are equally visible in nature
create life and coherence as configurations unfold

A. Fifteen fundamental properties
 Morphological features that resonate with
the human sensesthe human senses
 Found in man-made form and structure
 I d d t f lt i d i Independent of culture, period, or region —
something innate
 Also present in natural forms and objects

1. LEVELS OF SCALE is the way that a strong center is made stronger
partly by smaller strong centers contained in it, and partly by its larger
strong centers which contain itstrong centers which contain it..
2. STRONG CENTERS defines the way that a strong center requires a
spatial field-like effect, created by other centers, as the primary source of
it t thits strength
3. BOUNDARIES is the way in which the field-like effect of a center is
strengthened by the creation of a ring-like center, made of smaller centers
which surround and intensify the first. The boundary also unites the center
with the centers beyond it, thus strengthening it further.
4. ALTERNATING REPETITION is the way in which centers arey
strengthened when they repeat, by the insertion of other centers between
the repeating ones.
5. POSITIVE SPACE is the way that a given center must draw its strength,5. POSITIVE SPACE is the way that a given center must draw its strength,
in part, from the strength of other centers immediately adjacent to it in
space.

6. GOOD SHAPE is the way that the strength of a given center depends
on its actual shape, and the way this effect requires that even the shape,
its boundary, and the space around it are made up of strong centers.y p p g
7. LOCAL SYMMETRIES is the way that the intensity of a given center is
increased by the extent to which other smaller centers which it contains
are themselves arranged in locally symmetrical groups.are themselves arranged in locally symmetrical groups.
8. DEEP INTERLOCK AND AMBIGUITY is the way in which the intensity
of a given center can be increased when it is attached to nearby strong
centers through a third set of strong centers that ambiguously belong tocenters, through a third set of strong centers that ambiguously belong to
both.
9. CONTRAST is the way that a center is strengthened by the sharpness
of the distinction between its character and the character of surroundingof the distinction between its character and the character of surrounding
centers.
10. ROUGHNESS is the way that the field effect of a given center draws
i h il f i l i i i h i h dits strength, necessarily, from irregularities in the sizes, shapes, and
arrangements of other nearby centers.

11. GRADIENTS is the way a center is strengthened by a graded series of
different-sized centers which then "point" to the new center and intensify its
field effect.
12. ECHOES is the way that the strength of a given center depends on
similarities of angle and orientation and systems of centers forming
characteristic angles thus forming larger centers, among the centers itcharacteristic angles thus forming larger centers, among the centers it
contains.
13. THE VOID is the way that the intensity of every center depends on the
existence of a still place--an empty center--somewhere in its fieldexistence of a still place--an empty center--somewhere in its field.
14. SIMPLICITY AND INNER CALM is the way the strength of a center
depends on its simplicity--on the process of reducing the number of different
centers which exist in it while increasing the strength of these centers tocenters which exist in it, while increasing the strength of these centers to
make them weigh more.
15. NON-SEPARATENESS is the way the life and strength of a center is
d hl i i di i i h bl i h h hmerged smoothly-sometimes even indistinguishably--with the centers that
form its surroundings.

LEVELS OF SCALE
LEVELS OF SCALE
When a configuration contains centers,
these centers are associated withthese centers are associated with
centers at a range of sizes that occur
at well-marked levels of scale.

b
Y = Y0 Mb
where Y is a variable such as metabolic rate or life span, Y0 is a normalization
constant, and b is a scaling exponent.
This equation happen in fractal structure and this law are ubiquitousq pp q
in nature. In “Scaling laws in cognitive sciences” scholars have
demonstrate that the scaling laws pervade neural, behavioral and
linguistic activities suggesting the existence of processes or patternslinguistic activities suggesting the existence of processes or patterns
that are repeated across scales of analysis.
“Scaling laws in cognitive sciences” (Kello C T Brown G D A Ferrer i Cancho RScaling laws in cognitive sciences (Kello, C. T., Brown, G. D. A., Ferrer-i-Cancho, R.,
Holden, G., Linkenkaer-Hansen, K., Rhodes, T. & Van Orden, G. C., 2010),

What does this mean?What does this mean?

 F t l lik t k ff ti l d lif ith dditi l f th
 Fractal-like networks effectively endow life with an additional fourth
spatial dimension
 The quarter-power scaling law is pervasive in biology
 Organisms have evolved hierarchical branching networks thatg g
terminate in size-invariant units, such as capillaries, leaves, mitochondria,
and oxidase molecules. Natural selection has tended to maximize both
metabolic capacity, by maximizing the scaling of exchange surface areas,metabolic capacity, by maximizing the scaling of exchange surface areas,
and internal efficiency, by minimizing the scaling of transport distances and
times
 These design principles are independent of detailed dynamics and
explicit models and should apply to virtually all organisms
Source:Source:
The Fourth Dimension of Life: Fractal Geometry and Allometric Scaling of Organisms, Geoffrey B.
West, James H. Brown, Brian J. Enquist

They represent a link
between physicsbetween physics,
biology andgy
psychology, and join
human species tohuman species to
other species

fractal configuration and scale constants concur to create
 comfortable (psychological, neurophysiologically)
 beautiful (aesthetically and harmonically) and beautiful (aesthetically and harmonically) and
 highly connected environment
 support the life and furnish a deep sustainabilitysupport the life and furnish a deep sustainability

Alexander originally established the
Alexander originally established the
scaling hierarchy phenomenologically by
measuring internal subdivisions in
buildings, man-made artifacts, natural
structures, and biological forms.
He propose for the scaling factor k as
being somewhere between 2 and 3
(Alexander, 1996).
"The small scale is connected to the
large scale through a hierarchy of
intermediate scales with scaling factorintermediate scales with scaling factor
roughly equal to e = 2.7“
(Salingaros Jo rnal of Architect ral and Planning(Salingaros, Journal of Architectural and Planning
Research, volume 15 (1998), pages 283-293)

STRONG CENTERS
… in general, in any system
where one C forms, as
t t istructure-preserving
transformation, other smaller
C will then emerge will beC will then emerge, will be
intensify and themselves
strengthened in just such a
way that by virtue of their
position and arrangements
th i t if th fi t Cthey intensify the first C.
This causes the field effect
around the first Caround the first C

STRONG CENTERS
Great Mosque at Kairouan Tunisia
Like levels of scale, the concept of a strong center is recursive; it
does not refer to someone grand center, but to the fact that at a
great variety of scales, in a thing which is alive, we can feel the
Great Mosque at Kairouan, Tunisia
presence of a center, and that it is this multiplicity of different
centers, at different levels, which engages us.

Strong centers play a key role by creating a focal points in the city
61 SMALL PUBLIC SQUARES61 .SMALL PUBLIC SQUARES
126 SOMETHING ROUGHLY IN THE MIDDLE

 Each “center” ties a substantial region
of space together coherentlyof space together coherently
 Each center combines surrounding
t d b d i t fcenters and boundaries to focus
 Centers support each other on every Centers support each other on every
scale — recursive hierarchical property

BOUNDARIES
is the way in which theis the way in which the
field-like effect of a center is
strengthened by the
creation of a ring-like
center, made of smaller
centers which surround andcenters which surround and
intensify the first.
boundary unites and
separate

BOUNDARIES
Th I i th i t d d it hThe Iwan is north-oriented and as it has no
outside wall, shady, cool, high space, fit for
reception is created. This type of space is
also an intermediary space
Iwan such as traditional spaces
for houses from arid climate
regions
the iwan entrance to the Taj Mahal in Agra

ALTERNATING
ALTERNATING
REPETITION
fWhen repetition of similar centers
occurs in a coherent system, the
centers typically alternate with acenters typically alternate with a
second system of centers, thus
forming a double system ofg y
centers with a beat or rhythmic
alternation, from the positive
b t th titispace between the repetitions.

ALTERNATING REPETITION
The relation between centersThe relation between centers
can be intensified by the use
of repetition

ALTERNATING REPETITIONALTERNATING REPETITION
City country fingers
Oslo (Norway)

ISB SUMMER SCHOOL 2012: NEUROERGONOMICS AND URBAN DESIGN

NON
NON
ALTERNATING
REPETITION

POSITIVE SPACE
In coherent systems every bit of space is coherent, well
shaped; and the space between coherent bits of space are
also coherent and well-shaped.
Positive space in the cell
Positive space in the cell
structure of wood issue

Refers to Gestalt psychology
 Ties into the basis of human perceptionp p
 Convexity plays a major role in defining an
object or a space (area or volume)object or a space (area or volume)
 Mathematical plus psychological reasons
 Strongly applicable to the spaces we
inhabit
 Threat felt from objects sticking out

A td i iti h
An outdoor space is positive when
it has a distinct and definite shape
 it has been shaped over the time by people it has been shaped over the time by people
 it has therefore taken a definite, cared for shape with
meaning and purpose
 Every bit of space is very intensely useful
 There is NO leftover waste space which in not useful

POSITIVE SPACE
POSITIVE SPACE
Another way of defining the difference
between "Positive" and "negative" outdoorbetween Positive and negative outdoor
spaces is by their degree of enclosure and
th i d f ittheir degree of convexity.

POSITIVE SPACE d f it
POSITIVE SPACE - degree of convexity
space is non-convex when space is convex when a linespace is non-convex, when
some lines joining two points lie
at least partly outside the space
p
joining any two points inside
the space itself lies totally
inside the space.
p

POSITIVE SPACE
POSITIVE SPACE
degree of enclosure
Positive spaces are partly enclosed and the "virtual" area
which seems to exist is convex.
Negative spaces are so poorly defined that you cannot really
tell where their boundaries arc, and to the extent that you can
tell, the shapes are non-convex.

POSITIVE SPACE
Camillo Sitte, in City Planning According to Artistic
Principles shows that the successful spaces - those
which are greatly used and enjoyed - have two
properties:
- partly enclosed;
- they are open to one another, so that each one
leads into the next.

POSITIVE SPACE
POSITIVE SPACE
People feel comfortable in spaces which are "Positive" and
use these spaces;use these spaces;
people feel relatively uncomfortable in spaces which are
"negative" and such spaces tend to remain unused.

POSITIVE SPACE
partly enclosed
Transform this . . . . . . to this.
And when an existing open space
is too enclosed, it may be possible, y p
to break a hole through the
building to open the space up.

GOOD SHAPE
This describes a particular,This describes a particular,
coherent quality of the
particular shapes that occur in
or around a coherent center.
ginkgo_leaf

Alexander gives a partial list of required properties for both “good
shape” and the elements that make up a “good shape”:
1. High degree of internal symmetries.
2. Bilateral symmetry (almost always).2. Bilateral symmetry (almost always).
3. A well-marked center (not necessarily at the geometric middle).
4. The spaces it creates next to it are also positive (positive space).
5 It is very strongly distinct from what surrounds it5. It is very strongly distinct from what surrounds it.
6. It is relatively compact (i.e., not very different in overall outline from
something between 1:1 and 1:2 – exceptions may go as high as 1:4, but
almost never higher)almost never higher).
7. It has closure, a feeling of being closed and complete.

121 PATH SHAPE
122 BUILDING FRONTS

LOCAL
SYMMETRIESSYMMETRIES
Strong centers often have
strong symmetries within
them; these local parts of
space with strong
symmetries are typically
strong centers, too. This
The plan of Alhambra: the plan is a marvel of centers formed in a
strong centers, too. This
feature binds together
smaller centers within the
whole further creating The plan of Alhambra: the plan is a marvel of centers formed in a
thousand combinations, and yet with beautiful symmetrical order at
every point in space.
(Source: Alexander, Christopher. The Nature of Order)
whole, further creating
coherence.

Symmetries within hierarchy
 Within universal scaling, symmetries must act
on every scaleon every scale
 “Symmetry” does not mean overall symmetry,
as is usually envisionedas is usually envisioned
 We have multiple sub-symmetries acting
within larger symmetrieswithin larger symmetries
 Hierarchically nested symmetries

OVERALL + LOCAL SYMMETRIES
it is not the overall symmetry of a design or large symmetries that support
strong centers and that contribute coherence to the overall designg g
Zeppelinfiled by Albert Speer:
brutal overall symmetry of a
very simple minded type but
very simple-minded type, but
few local symmetries.

OVERALL SYMMETRIES
Detroit Renaissance Center (Skidmore, Owings
& Marril et al.)
“perfect symmetry is often ap y y
mark of death in things,

DEEP INTERLOCK AND AMBIGUITY
This property containsThis property contains
the interrelation
between two or morebetween two or more
C which react on each
other to create a newother to create a new
unit.

 Another strong way of connecting
 Forms interpenetrate to link together
 Analogy comes from fractals where Analogy comes from fractals, where
lines tend to fill portions of space, and
f ith tisurfaces grow with accretions
 Abrupt transition does not bind Abrupt transition does not bind

The ambiguity between indoors and outdoors in a building
is crucial social reason
arcades create an ambiguous territory between the public world and the
g y p
private world, and so make buildings friendly.

Arcade
Propertiesp
- as place that is partly inside
the building it must contain
th h t f th i idthe character of the inside
- as a territory which is also
apart from the public world itapart from the public world, it
must be felt as an extension
of the building interior andg
therefore covered
- Arcades don't work if the
d f th ili tedges of the ceiling are too
high

d h h h h b ldArcades which pass through buildings.
the effect of the arcade can bethe effect of the arcade can be
increased if the paths open to the public
pass right through the building.

CONTRAST
Unity can only be created from
distinctness.
The difference between opposite gives
birth to “something”

CONTRAST
“Life cannot occur without
differentiation. Unity can only be
created from distinctness ”created from distinctness.
Badia Fiesolana (sec. XII)
Contrast of rough and smooth, dark and light,
solid and void are all working togrther
g g

Contrast is necessary:
 To establish distinct subunits
 To distinguish between adjoining units
 To provide figure-ground symmetry of To provide figure ground symmetry of
opposites
 False transparency reduces contrast False transparency reduces contrast
 Reduced contrast weakens design

Space under an arcadeSpace under an arcade
versus open street space
Weak spaces: inside versus
outside a glass curtain wallg
— no contrast

GRADIENTS
This quality play a large
role throughout nature
In a river, we have gradient of
turbulence
In an electric field, the field - strength varies with
distance from the charge, forming a gradient of
g , g g
intensity

GRADIENTS
A gradient is a mediator,g ,
which slowly changes of
appearance in a certain
direction and with adirection and with a
certain regularity.
One quality changes slowly
across space, and becomes
another.”

Gradients = transitionsGradients transitions
— sometimes we should not quantize form into
discrete pieces but need to change it graduallydiscrete pieces, but need to change it gradually
 Getting away from uniformity Getting away from uniformity
 Urban transect: city to countryside
 I t i bli t i t Interior spaces: public to private

GRADIENTS
Doge’s palace. Venice. Complex
gradients
Golden Gate showing gradients in
the bays, steelwork, and gusset
platesplates

ROUGHNESS
ROUGHNESS
Roughness or irregularity appear pervasively in natural
tsystems.
It is the result of the interplay between well defined order and
the constraints of three dimensional spacethe constraints of three dimensional space
In real life, living things are not
always in ultimate accuracyalways in ultimate accuracy…
they have a
“morphological roughness”morphological roughness

ROUGHNESS
ROUGHNESS
Persian bowl showing thePersian bowl showing the
roughness in the beautiful
drawing of the ornaments;
they vary in size, position,
orientation, and according to
he space formed byhe space formed by
neighboring ornaments, and
so make the space perfectlyso make the space perfectly
harmonious.
(Source: Alexander, Christopher. The Nature of Order)

ROUGHNESS
ROUGHNESS
Piazza Navona

Many different manifestations of roughnessMany different manifestations of roughness —
all positive!
 1. Fractal structure goes all the way down in
l thi i thscales — nothing is smooth
 2. Relaxation of strict geometry to allow
imperfections — more tolerant
 3. Ornament can be interpreted as “roughness” in
a smooth geometry

Roughness and symmetry breaking
So-called “imperfections” differentiateSo called imperfections differentiate
repeated units to make them similar
b id i l h d i d ilbut not identical — hand-painted tiles
Symmetry breaking (approximate)Symmetry breaking (approximate)
prevents informational collapse
Deliberate roughness in repetition

Roughness and adaptation
Sustainability implies adaptation
L l diti t hLocal conditions create roughness —
breaks regularity and perfect symmetry
The whole changes according to its
context thus it becomes uniquecontext thus it becomes unique
Hierarchy: sustainability; adaptivity;
uniqueness; roughness

ECHOES
Within coherent configurationsWithin coherent configurations
there are often deep underlying
similarities or familysimilarities or family
resemblances among the
elements.
These similarities are often
characterized by typical angles,
and typical curves, so that they
generate what appear to be
d l l t d t tdeeply related structures,
sometimes so deep that
everything seems to be relatedeverything seems to be related.

The relation between echoing elements in a larger whole can
be the result of a transformation by mathematical aspects like
translation scaling and rotation or a combination of them astranslation, scaling and rotation or a combination of them as
shown in figure
Impossibile visualizzare l'immagine. La memoria del computer potrebbe essere insufficiente per aprire l'immagine oppure l'immagine potrebbe essere danneggiata. Riavviare il computer e aprire di nuovo il file. Se viene visualizzata di nuovo la x rossa, potrebbe essere necessario eliminare l'immagine e inserirla di nuovo.

Two types of echoes:
 1. Translational symmetry — similar forms
found on the same scale but at a distancefound on the same scale but at a distance
 2. Scaling symmetry — similar forms exist
at different scalesat different scales
All natural fractals obey fractal similarity — not
exactly similar when magnified, but onlyexactly similar when magnified, but only
“echoes”

THE VOID
THE VOID
Correspond to the fact that differentiation of minor system
almost always occurs in relation to the “quiet” of some
larger and more stable system.
The smaller structure tend to appear around the edge ofThe smaller structure tend to appear around the edge of
larger and more homogeneous structure.
…
void will occur in complex systems
to maintain their wholeness appearsto maintain their wholeness, appears
in the most general models of fractal
geometry.

In the most profound centers
th t h f t h lthat have perfect wholeness,
there is often at the heart of
the structure a void that isthe structure a void that is
large, undifferentiated, like
water, infinite in depth,
surrounded by and
contrasted with the clutter of
th t t d f b i llthe structure and fabric all
around it

SIMPLICITY AND INNER CALM.
Every structural feature that is
unnecessary has been
removed, so that the remaining
structure has slowness,
majesty quietnessmajesty, quietness.
Everything superfluous has
gonegone
Nova Scotia. Source: www.natureoforder.com

Simplicity in nature
 Never actually “simple” in the sense of
being minimalistbeing minimalist
 “Simple” in nature means extremely
complex but highly coherentcomplex but highly coherent
 A system appears “simple” to us
b it i f t th f ibecause it is so perfect; the form is
seamless

SIMPLICITY AND INNER CALM
Green streets
Pools and streams
L illLow sill

NON-SEPARATENESS
Wh h l i li i t i it b i t ith thWhen a whole is a living center, we experience it as being at one with the
world around it, not separate from it.
This means that when not-separateness exists, visible strands of
continuity of line, angle, shape, and form, connect the inside of a living
center with the parts of the world beyond that center, so that it is,
ultimately, impossible to draw a line separating the two.

Achieving coherence
 Coherence is an emergent property
— not present in the individualnot present in the individual
components
 In a larger coherent whole no piece can In a larger coherent whole, no piece can
be taken away
 D iti i ith b i Decomposition is neither obvious, nor
possible

Measure of coherence
When every component is cooperating to
give a coherent whole, nothing looksgive a coherent whole, nothing looks
separate, nothing draws attention
This is the goal of adaptive design

Extending outside
 Not-separateness goes beyond internal
coherencecoherence
 The whole connects to its environment
 Connects with everything beyond itself
 Try as much as possible to generate Try as much as possible to generate
large-scale coherence

NON-SEPARATENESS
Old people everywhere
Connected buildings
C t d lConnected play

Conclusion
Alexander’s 15 fundamental
properties are an incredibly essentialproperties are an incredibly essential
set of practical design tools
Arguments based on mathematics,
physics chemistry and biologyphysics, chemistry, and biology
Architects have to accept them as
i l d idi li iuniversal, deciding on stylistic reasons
whether to follow them or not

Conclusion (cont.)
Traditional practitioners intuitively
recognize some of the 15 properties asrecognize some of the 15 properties as
part of their own design method
Yet, some are unknown to them
Now put together into a coherent setNow put together into a coherent set
I find it more useful to introduce them
after having derived basic design rules

References
Alexander, Christopher (2000) The Nature of Order (New York, Oxford University Press). (in
press)
Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M., Jacobson, M., Fiksdahl-King, I. and Angel, S. (1977) A
Pattern Language (New York, Oxford University Press).g g ( , y )
Alexander, C., Neis, H., Anninou, A. and King, I. (1987) A New Theory of Urban Design (New York,
Oxford University Press).
Batty, Michael and Longley, Paul (1994) Fractal Cities (London, Academic Press).
Bovill, Carl (1996) Fractal Geometry in Architecture and Design (Boston, Birkhäuser)., ( ) y g ( , )
Salingaros, Nikos A. (1995) "The Laws of Architecture from a Physicist's Perspective", Physics
Essays, Vol. 8 pp. 638-643.
Salingaros, Nikos A. (1998) "Theory of the Urban Web", Journal of Urban Design, Vol. 3 pp. 53-71.
[Earlier version published electronically by Resource for Urban Design Information in 1997[ p y y g
Salingaros, Nikos A. (1999) "Urban Space and its Information Field", Journal of Urban Design,
Vol. 4 pp. 29-49.
Salingaros, Nikos A. (2000) "Structure of Pattern Languages", Architectural Research Quarterly,
Vol. 4 pp. 149-161.pp
Salingaros, Nikos A. and West, Bruce J. (1999) "A Universal Rule for the Distribution of Sizes",
Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, Vol. 26 pp. 909-923.
Caperna A., Introduction to The Pattern Language, www.archimagazine.com
Caperna A., ICT per un Progetto Urbano Sostenibile, www.tesionline.itp p g
http://www.biourbanism.org
http://www.pism.uniroma3.it

SHORT CV
Antonio Caperna actual research deals with application of the last
scientific development, such as fractals, complexity theory, evolutionary
biology and physics for a human‐oriented architecture and urbanism.
He is expert at the Portuguese Agency for Assessment and Accreditation of
Higher Education - A3ES, Head of the International Society of Biourbanism,
Associated Editor of International Journal of E-Planning Research
(IJEPR), member of scientific council of Space and FORM / przestrzeń i
FORMA, co-editor of Journal of Biourbanism, and member of several
professional bodies.
Antonio’s recent publications include the chapter “Biourbanism as new
framework for smart cities study” in “GIS and smart cities”, and several
papaers such as “Complexity and Biourbanism. Thermodynamical
Architectural and Urban Models integrated in Modern Geographic
Mapping,” (2012), “Biourbanism Principles. Design for a human built
environment” (2012), and “Peer to Peer Urbanism” (2011).
Antonio Caperna PhD | antoniocaperna@gmail.com

A Lecture on the Christopher Alexander’s books The Nature of Order. by Antonio Caperna

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