3. Introduction to Solution Architecture
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Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction, Purpose and Scope .................................................................................17
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................17
1.2 Who This Book Is Aimed At...........................................................................................................................................................19
1.3 Terminology......................................................................................................................................................................................20
1.4 Structure and Contents of This Book ............................................................................................................................................20
1.5 Checklists...........................................................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 2. Solution Architecture and Solution Design..................................................................26
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................26
2.2 Solution Architecture – A Lesson From History .........................................................................................................................30
2.3 Evolution of Solution Architecture and Solution Architect Role..............................................................................................31
2.4 What Is a Solution?...........................................................................................................................................................................34
2.4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................................................34
2.4.2 Scope of Complete Solution ............................................................................................................................................................................34
2.4.3 Solutions and Organisation Change ..............................................................................................................................................................41
2.4.4 Solution Components and Organisation Change........................................................................................................................................42
2.4.5 Solution Decomposition ..................................................................................................................................................................................43
2.4.6 Solution Cost .....................................................................................................................................................................................................45
2.4.7 Solution Options, Boundaries and Constraints............................................................................................................................................49
2.5 Getting the Solution Design Right .................................................................................................................................................51
2.6 The Solution Delivery Process in Context ....................................................................................................................................51
Chapter 3. Business Strategy, Architecture Strategy and Solution Design and Delivery..............58
3.1 Why Solutions Fail ...........................................................................................................................................................................58
3.1.1 The Business Value of Solution Architecture...............................................................................................................................................72
3.2 Solution Architecture and Risk Management ..............................................................................................................................72
3.3 Architecture Disciplines, Context and Interactions ....................................................................................................................76
3.3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................................................76
3.3.2 Run the Business and Change the Business..................................................................................................................................................81
3.3.3 IT Architecture Principles ...............................................................................................................................................................................82
3.3.4 Problems with IT Architecture Operation....................................................................................................................................................84
3.3.5 Shadow IT ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................87
Chapter 4. Solution Architecture Engagement and the Solution Design Process.........................92
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................92
4.2 Problem and Solution Knowledge and Complexity ....................................................................................................................96
4.2.1 Problem and Solution Knowledge..................................................................................................................................................................96
4.2.2 Solution Complexity.......................................................................................................................................................................................101
4.3 Solution Design, Delivery and Operation Context....................................................................................................................113
4.4 Solution Architecture Interface with the Business Analysis Function, Requirements Gathering and Process Analysis.125
4.4.1 Requirements Engineering............................................................................................................................................................................130
4.4.2 Business Processes ..........................................................................................................................................................................................135
4.4.2.1 Business Process Modelling Notation (BPMN).................................................................................................................................152
4.5 Solution Architecture Engagement Process................................................................................................................................159
4.6 Solution Architecture Engagements ............................................................................................................................................162
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4.6.1 Business Engagement.....................................................................................................................................................................................162
4.6.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................162
4.6.1.2 Workshops ..............................................................................................................................................................................................167
4.6.1.3 High Level Activities and Their Logical Sequence............................................................................................................................168
4.6.1.4 Business Engagement Activity 0. Define And Agree Engagement Scope......................................................................................169
4.6.1.4.1 Step 0.1 Preparation and Planning..............................................................................................................................................170
4.6.1.4.2 Step 0.2 Mobilise and Present Approach to Sponsorship, Stakeholder and Core Project Team.......................................171
4.6.1.4.3 Step 0.3 Review Any Previous Work, if Any .............................................................................................................................171
4.6.1.4.4 Step 0.4 Perform Initial Informal Information Gathering ......................................................................................................172
4.6.1.4.5 Step 0.5 Review Information and Define Scope of Introductory Workshop(s)...................................................................172
4.6.1.4.6 Step 0.6 Define Team and Facilities Required...........................................................................................................................173
4.6.1.4.7 Step 0.7 Create Table of Contents (Scope) of Engagement Deliverable................................................................................174
4.6.1.4.8 Step 0.8 Conduct Introductory Workshop(s) ...........................................................................................................................175
4.6.1.4.9 Step 0.9 Update Scope of Deliverables........................................................................................................................................175
4.6.1.5 Business Engagement Activity 1. Information Collection And Assessment.................................................................................176
4.6.1.5.1 Step 1.1 Current Business Review...............................................................................................................................................176
4.6.1.5.2 Step 1.2 Assess Customer (Or External Party) Perceptions....................................................................................................178
4.6.1.5.3 Step 1.3 Review Current Industry Best Practices And Technology Changes.......................................................................179
4.6.1.5.4 Step 1.4 Analyse Current Business Systems...............................................................................................................................181
4.6.1.5.5 Step 1.5 Analyse Available Solutions And Products.................................................................................................................183
4.6.1.6 Business Engagement Activity 2. Define Vision, Business Principles And System Principles...................................................184
4.6.1.6.1 Step 2.1 Define Vision For Functional Business Area .............................................................................................................184
4.6.1.6.2 Step 2.2 Describe Functional Business Area Principles, Assumptions and Limitations.....................................................188
4.6.1.6.3 Step 2.3 Describe System Principles, Assumptions and Limitations.....................................................................................189
4.6.1.7 Business Engagement Activity 3. Document Business Processes, Entity Model, Capacity Planning And Solution Approach
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................191
4.6.1.7.1 Step 3.1 Define And Document Business Processes.................................................................................................................192
4.6.1.7.2 Step 3.2 Create Conceptual Entity Model..................................................................................................................................198
4.6.1.7.3 Step 3.3 Gather Capacity Planning Information.......................................................................................................................198
4.6.1.7.4 Step 3.4 Define Solution And System Approach ......................................................................................................................200
4.6.1.7.5 Step 3.5 Develop And Validate Feasibility Prototype(s)..........................................................................................................206
4.6.1.8 Business Engagement Activity 4. Document Solutions, Applications And Functions................................................................206
4.6.1.8.1 Step 4.1 Document Systems, Applications And Functions.....................................................................................................206
4.6.1.9 Business Engagement Activity 5. Define Organisation, Infrastructure And Data.......................................................................209
4.6.1.9.1 Step 5.1 Define Organisation And Resource Requirements And Structure.........................................................................209
4.6.1.9.2 Step 5.2 Define Application And Data Organisation...............................................................................................................210
4.6.1.9.3 Step 5.3 Define Infrastructure Requirements............................................................................................................................212
4.6.1.10 Business Engagement Activity 6. Conduct Solution And Product Evaluation And Selection.................................................213
4.6.1.10.1 Step 6.1 Conduct Solution And Product Evaluation And Selection....................................................................................214
4.6.1.11 Business Engagement Activity 7. Design Model Architecture......................................................................................................222
4.6.1.11.1 Step 7.1 Design Infrastructure Model Architecture...............................................................................................................222
4.6.1.12 Business Engagement Activity 8. Consolidate, Finalise And Review Design .............................................................................225
4.6.1.12.1 Step 8.1 Finalise Application Architecture..............................................................................................................................226
4.6.1.12.2 Step 8.2 Define Benefits And Costs...........................................................................................................................................226
4.6.1.12.3 Step 8.3 Create High Level Phased Delivery Plan...................................................................................................................226
4.6.1.12.4 Step 8.4 Review And Agree Business Architecture Engagement .........................................................................................227
4.6.2 Solution Design Process.................................................................................................................................................................................227
4.6.3 Solution Design Engagement Types ............................................................................................................................................................235
4.6.4 Early Engagement...........................................................................................................................................................................................236
4.6.4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................236
4.6.4.2 What Is A Problem?...............................................................................................................................................................................241
4.6.4.3 Early Engagement Aspects....................................................................................................................................................................243
4.6.4.4 Early Engagement Questions ...............................................................................................................................................................246
4.6.4.5 Building Activity Model Stream ..........................................................................................................................................................247
4.6.4.6 Rich Pictures ...........................................................................................................................................................................................250
4.6.4.7 Resolution Options ................................................................................................................................................................................252
4.6.4.8 Problem Resolution and Organisation Change.................................................................................................................................254
4.6.4.9 Bringing It All Together And Presenting The Results......................................................................................................................257
4.6.5 Rapid Solution Design Option Engagement ..............................................................................................................................................258
4.6.5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................259
4.6.5.2 Step 1 – Identify New and Impacted Existing Business Processes..................................................................................................261
4.6.5.3 Step 2 – Identify Key Functions...........................................................................................................................................................262
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4.6.5.4 Step 3 – Identify Actors .........................................................................................................................................................................265
4.6.5.5 Step 4 – Identify New and Existing Applications ..............................................................................................................................266
4.6.5.6 Step 5 – Identify Data Integrations, Transfers and Exchanges........................................................................................................267
4.6.5.7 Step 6 – Identify Actor and Application Interactions.......................................................................................................................269
4.6.5.8 Step 7 – Identify Actor/Actor Interactions.........................................................................................................................................270
4.6.5.9 Steps 1-7 – Solution on a Page..............................................................................................................................................................271
4.6.5.10 Steps 8 and 9 – Identify Data Sets, Data Impacts and Data Movements .....................................................................................271
4.6.5.11 Step 10 – Create Inventory of Solution Usage Journeys.................................................................................................................273
4.6.5.12 Summary................................................................................................................................................................................................276
4.6.6 Structured Solution Design Engagement ....................................................................................................................................................277
4.6.6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................277
4.6.6.2 Structured Solution Design Approach and TOGAF.........................................................................................................................280
4.6.6.3 Business and Process View....................................................................................................................................................................283
4.6.6.3.1 Adapting TOGAF Business Phase to the Business and Process View...................................................................................286
4.6.6.4 Functional View......................................................................................................................................................................................288
4.6.6.4.1 Adapting TOGAF Information Systems Architecture Phase to the Functional View........................................................289
4.6.6.5 Data View ................................................................................................................................................................................................292
4.6.6.5.1 Adapting TOGAF Information Systems Architecture Phase to the Data View...................................................................294
4.6.6.6 Technical View........................................................................................................................................................................................296
4.6.6.6.1 Adapting TOGAF Technology Architecture Phase to the Technical View..........................................................................298
4.6.6.7 Implementation View............................................................................................................................................................................301
4.6.6.7.1 Adapting TOGAF Technology Architecture Phase to the Implementation View...............................................................303
4.6.6.8 Management and Operations View.....................................................................................................................................................305
4.6.6.8.1 Adapting TOGAF Technology Architecture Phase to the Management and Operations View .......................................309
4.7 Solution Architecture and Solution Experience and Usability ................................................................................................312
4.8 Data Architectural Aspects of Solution Architecture................................................................................................................322
4.8.1 Data Management Book of Knowledge (DMBOK) Data Architecture Framework.............................................................................322
4.8.2 Solution Data Landscape ...............................................................................................................................................................................327
4.8.3 Solution Data Quality.....................................................................................................................................................................................337
4.8.4 Data Lifecycle...................................................................................................................................................................................................338
4.8.5 Data Integration..............................................................................................................................................................................................340
4.8.6 Data Audit and Data Profiling......................................................................................................................................................................352
4.8.6.1 Data Landscape View.............................................................................................................................................................................352
4.8.6.2 Data Supply Chain View .......................................................................................................................................................................352
4.8.6.3 Data Model View....................................................................................................................................................................................352
4.8.6.4 Data Lifecycle View................................................................................................................................................................................353
4.8.6.5 Solution Data Audit Approach.............................................................................................................................................................353
4.9 Security and Privacy.......................................................................................................................................................................353
4.9.1 Solution Security.............................................................................................................................................................................................353
4.9.2 Solution Data Privacy.....................................................................................................................................................................................364
4.9.2.1 Overview..................................................................................................................................................................................................364
4.9.2.2 Personal Information.............................................................................................................................................................................365
4.9.2.3 Personal Data Related Processes and Impact on Solution Design..................................................................................................367
4.9.2.4 GDPR Related Metadata........................................................................................................................................................................370
4.9.2.5 Solution Data Protection Impact Assessment (DPIA) .....................................................................................................................371
4.9.2.6 Data Pseudonymisation.........................................................................................................................................................................372
4.9.3 Data and Hosted Applications and XaaS/Cloud-Based Services.............................................................................................................375
4.10 Solution Architecture and Design Artefacts.............................................................................................................................378
4.11 Solution Assessment and Review ...............................................................................................................................................382
4.11.1 Solution Benefits Review..............................................................................................................................................................................382
4.11.2 Solution Design Review ...............................................................................................................................................................................384
4.11.3 Solution Architectural Review ....................................................................................................................................................................387
4.11.4 Solution Implementability Review.............................................................................................................................................................387
Chapter 5. Solution Architecture and Digital Transformation....................................................389
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................389
5.2 Digital Strategy in Business and Information Technology Context........................................................................................394
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5.3 Digital Target Architecture...........................................................................................................................................................397
5.4 Digital and Solution Architecture................................................................................................................................................413
5.4.1 Digital Solution Integration ..........................................................................................................................................................................414
5.4.2 Range of Solutions Within Digital Transformation..................................................................................................................................415
5.4.3 Digital Design Principles...............................................................................................................................................................................416
5.4.4 Digital Solution Architecture Interactions With Other Architecture Functions..................................................................................418
Chapter 6. Agile Solution Design and Delivery............................................................................420
6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................420
6.2 Agile Approach to Solution Delivery ..........................................................................................................................................421
6.3 Using Agile Solution Delivery Effectively...................................................................................................................................424
6.4 Agile Solution Delivery Pillar One - Solution Delivery Selection and Validation................................................................425
6.5 Agile Solution Delivery Pillar Two - Control Components of Agile Process........................................................................429
6.6 Agile Solution Delivery Pillar Three - Agile Tools and Techniques.......................................................................................432
6.7 Agile Solution Delivery Pillar Four - Agile Solution Delivery Phases ....................................................................................433
6.7.1 Agile Solution Delivery Phase 1 - Pre-Project Phase.................................................................................................................................435
6.7.2 Agile Solution Delivery Phase 2 - Feasibility Analysis and Study Phase................................................................................................436
6.7.3 Agile Solution Delivery Phase 3 - Business Study Phase ..........................................................................................................................437
6.7.4 Agile Solution Delivery Phase 4 - Functional Model Iteration Phase.....................................................................................................439
6.7.5 Agile Solution Delivery Phase 5 - Design and Build Iteration Phase......................................................................................................440
6.7.6 Agile Solution Delivery Phase 6 - Implementation Phase........................................................................................................................442
6.7.7 Agile Solution Delivery Phase 7 - Post-Project Phase...............................................................................................................................443
Chapter 7. Solution Architecture and Solution Acquisition........................................................445
7.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................445
7.1.1 Service Planning and Initiation/Transfer Approach.................................................................................................................................450
7.1.1.1 Activities for Initiation/Transition and Service Delivery Phases....................................................................................................452
7.1.1.2 Activities for Ongoing Phases ..............................................................................................................................................................457
7.1.2 Supplier Assessment and Validation ...........................................................................................................................................................464
Chapter 8. The Solution Architecture Function...........................................................................470
8.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................470
8.2 Solution Architecture Skills, Capabilities and Experience .......................................................................................................470
8.2.1 Technical Skills................................................................................................................................................................................................472
8.2.2 Analytical Thinking and Resolution Identification...................................................................................................................................474
8.2.3 Behavioural Characteristics...........................................................................................................................................................................476
8.2.4 Business Knowledge.......................................................................................................................................................................................478
8.2.5 Collaboration Skills ........................................................................................................................................................................................481
8.2.6 Communication Skills....................................................................................................................................................................................483
8.2.7 Tools and Techniques....................................................................................................................................................................................484
8.3 Solution Architecture Function ...................................................................................................................................................485
8.3.1 Solution Architecture Function Context ....................................................................................................................................................485
8.3.2 Solution Architecture Function Structure..................................................................................................................................................487
8.3.3 Solution Architecture Centre of Excellence................................................................................................................................................490
8.3.4 Some Solution Architecture Function Issues .............................................................................................................................................502
8.3.4.1 Conway’s Law .........................................................................................................................................................................................503
8.3.4.2 Cognitive Diversity ................................................................................................................................................................................504
8.3.5 Solution Architecture Tools..........................................................................................................................................................................509
8.3.5.1 Solution Architecture Design Tools....................................................................................................................................................510
8.3.5.1.1 Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology (SSADM)........................................................................................514
8.3.5.1.1.1 Solution Survey and Feasibility Study................................................................................................................................515
8.3.5.1.1.2 Structured Analysis...............................................................................................................................................................516
8.3.5.1.1.3 Structured Design..................................................................................................................................................................516
8.3.5.1.1.4 Infrastructure Configuration Study....................................................................................................................................516
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8.3.5.1.1.5 Solution Construction and Implementation.....................................................................................................................516
8.3.5.1.1.6 Solution Operation and Maintenance................................................................................................................................516
8.3.5.1.2 Archimate........................................................................................................................................................................................516
8.3.5.2 IT Architecture Frameworks, Methodologies and Description Languages...................................................................................526
Chapter 9. Solution Architecture and Innovation........................................................................532
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List of Tables
Table 1 – Solution Architecture-Related Checklists Contained in the Book............................................................................................................... 25
Table 2 – Overlapping Solution Architecture Capabilities and Areas of Solution Involvement and Knowledge ................................................. 28
Table 3 – Vitruvius’ Architecture Principles .................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Table 4 – Components of Complete Solution .................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Table 5 – Mapping Solution Components to Business Change Domains ................................................................................................................... 43
Table 6 – Sources of Good and Poor Solution Delivery Estimates................................................................................................................................ 49
Table 7 – Solution Design Constraints.............................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Table 8 – High-Level Steps of Individual Discipline Solution Delivery Journeys ...................................................................................................... 54
Table 9 – Field of Solution Delivery Project Success and Failure.................................................................................................................................. 62
Table 10 – Standish Group CHAOS Report Project Outcome Results 1994-2015..................................................................................................... 64
Table 11 – Causes of Project Failure from What went wrong? Unsuccessful information technology projects ................................................... 65
Table 12 – Standish Group Project Success Factors Over Time.................................................................................................................................... 66
Table 13 – Budzier and Flyvbjerg Project Organisational Challenges.......................................................................................................................... 67
Table 14 – Solution Architecture Contribution to the Standish Group Solution Delivery Success Factors........................................................... 68
Table 15 – Solution Architecture Contribution to Budzier and Flyvbjerg Organisational Challenges................................................................... 69
Table 16 – Errors in End User Computing Applications Leading to Financial Losses.............................................................................................. 91
Table 17 – Solution Complexity Factors .........................................................................................................................................................................107
Table 18 – Sample Solution Complexity Scores.............................................................................................................................................................110
Table 19 – Complexity Scores and Resource Uplifts.....................................................................................................................................................111
Table 20 – Sample Solution Complexity Dashboard Elements ...................................................................................................................................113
Table 21 – Set of Solution Delivery Artefacts.................................................................................................................................................................123
Table 22 – Lessons Learned from Large Solutions Implementations.........................................................................................................................138
Table 23 – Applying Waste Elimination Principles to Process Optimisation...........................................................................................................140
Table 24 – Primary and Support Processes Example....................................................................................................................................................147
Table 25 – Business Process Analysis High-Level Steps ...............................................................................................................................................148
Table 26 – Process Analysis Information Structure ......................................................................................................................................................149
Table 27 – Business Process Design Success Factors.....................................................................................................................................................150
Table 28 – Business Process Design Standards and Approaches ................................................................................................................................152
Table 29 – BPMN Flow Objects........................................................................................................................................................................................155
Table 30 – BPMN Graphics for Combinations of Task Type and Loop Type ..........................................................................................................156
Table 31 – BPMN Graphics for Sub-Processes ..............................................................................................................................................................157
Table 32 – BPMN Event Modifications...........................................................................................................................................................................158
Table 33 – BPMN Gateway Symbols ...............................................................................................................................................................................158
Table 34 – BPMN Data Symbols ......................................................................................................................................................................................159
Table 35 – Mapping Business Need to Engagement Types..........................................................................................................................................161
Table 36 – Architecture Engagement Extended Factors...............................................................................................................................................166
Table 37 – Introductory Workshop Topics ....................................................................................................................................................................173
Table 38 – Sample Table of Contents for Architecture Engagement Main Deliverable..........................................................................................175
Table 39 – Vision Development Factors .........................................................................................................................................................................186
Table 40 – Inventory of Interfaces, Exchanges and Transfers .....................................................................................................................................208
Table 41 – High Level Steps of Product/Service Evaluation And Selection Process ................................................................................................222
Table 42 – Generalised Solution Design Process Steps.................................................................................................................................................229
Table 43 – Early Engagement Aspect Sample Questions..............................................................................................................................................246
Table 44 – Activity Model Details....................................................................................................................................................................................249
Table 45 – Elements of a Rich Picture .............................................................................................................................................................................251
Table 46 – Rapid Solution Design Core and Extended Design Elements ..................................................................................................................261
Table 47 – Sample Process and Function Breakdown – Buy a Product or Service...................................................................................................265
Table 48 – List of System Interactions.............................................................................................................................................................................268
Table 49 – Actor System Interactions..............................................................................................................................................................................269
Table 50 – Actor Actor Interactions ................................................................................................................................................................................270
Table 51 – Data Exchanges Between Systems.................................................................................................................................................................273
Table 52 – Mapping TOGAF Architecture Development Method (ADM) Steps to Solution Design ..................................................................282
Table 53 – Business and Process View Information Structure....................................................................................................................................286
Table 54 – Adapting TOGAF Business Phase to the Business and Process View.....................................................................................................288
Table 55 – Functional View Information Structure......................................................................................................................................................289
Table 56 – Adapting TOGAF Business Phase to the Functional View.......................................................................................................................292
Table 57 – Data View Information Structure.................................................................................................................................................................293
Table 58 – Adapting TOGAF Business Phase to the Data View .................................................................................................................................296
Table 59 – Technical View Information Structure........................................................................................................................................................298
Table 60 – Adapting TOGAF Business Phase to the Technical View.........................................................................................................................301
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Table 61 – Implementation View Information Structure.............................................................................................................................................303
Table 62 – Adapting TOGAF Business Phase to the Implementation View .............................................................................................................305
Table 63 – Management and Operations View Information Structure......................................................................................................................308
Table 64 – Adapting TOGAF Business Phase to the Management and Operations View......................................................................................312
Table 65 – Data Management Book of Knowledge (DMBOK) Subject Areas...........................................................................................................325
Table 66 – Solution Design Data Completeness Checks...............................................................................................................................................326
Table 67 – Data Management Book of Knowledge (DMBOK) Subject Areas Solution Design Considerations.................................................327
Table 68 – Components of Conceptual Solution Design Data Landscape.................................................................................................................333
Table 69 – Solution Data Landscape Component Linkages.........................................................................................................................................335
Table 70 – Data Integration Patterns ...............................................................................................................................................................................347
Table 71 – Sample Extended Integration Specifications...............................................................................................................................................349
Table 72 – Examples of Personal Data.............................................................................................................................................................................367
Table 73 – GDPR Processes and Their Impact on Solution Design............................................................................................................................370
Table 74 – Personal Data Metadata..................................................................................................................................................................................370
Table 75 – ISO/IEC 25010 Quality Model Applied to Solution Design Reviews......................................................................................................387
Table 76 – Fallacies of Distributed Computing Applied to Digital Solutions ...........................................................................................................394
Table 77 – Linkages Between Components of Digital Target Architecture...............................................................................................................402
Table 78 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Group External Party Interaction Zones, Channels and Facilities....................................403
Table 79 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Group Security, Identity, Access and Profile Management...............................................404
Table 80 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Group Digital Specific Applications and Tools ...................................................................406
Table 81 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Group Responsive Infrastructure...........................................................................................407
Table 82 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Internal Interaction Management..........................................................................................407
Table 83 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Integration.................................................................................................................................408
Table 84 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Operational and Business Systems.........................................................................................409
Table 85 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component Applications Delivery and Management Tools and Frameworks.....................................411
Table 86 – Level 2 Elements of Level 1 Component System Development, Deployment and Management .......................................................413
Table 87 – Digital Solution Common Characteristics...................................................................................................................................................418
Table 88 – Pillars of Generalised Approach to Agile Iterative Solution Delivery .....................................................................................................425
Table 89 – Solutions and Projects When to Use Agile..................................................................................................................................................427
Table 90 – Key Principles of Iterative Agile Approach .................................................................................................................................................429
Table 91 – Agile Solution Delivery Pillar Two - Control Components of Agile Process.........................................................................................432
Table 92 – Agile Solution Delivery Pillar Three - Agile Tools and Techniques........................................................................................................433
Table 93 – Activities During Initiation/Transition and Service Delivery Phases......................................................................................................457
Table 94 – Ongoing Phase Governance Focussed Activities........................................................................................................................................461
Table 95 – Ongoing Phase Competency and Change Focussed Activities.................................................................................................................463
Table 96 – Ongoing Phase Operations Focussed Activities..........................................................................................................................................464
Table 97 – Service Organisation Controls.......................................................................................................................................................................469
Table 98 – Solution Architect Technical Skills...............................................................................................................................................................474
Table 99 – Solution Architect Analytical Thinking and Resolution Identification Skills........................................................................................476
Table 100 – Solution Architect Behavioural Characteristics........................................................................................................................................478
Table 101 – Solution Architect Business Knowledge ....................................................................................................................................................481
Table 102 – Solution Architect Collaboration Skills......................................................................................................................................................483
Table 103 – Solution Architect Communication Skills.................................................................................................................................................484
Table 104 – Solution Architect Tools and Techniques Skills.......................................................................................................................................485
Table 105 – Applying the Business Function Domain Model to the Solution Architecture Function..................................................................489
Table 106 – SACOE Functions..........................................................................................................................................................................................492
Table 107 – Possible Solution Architecture Maturity Model.......................................................................................................................................494
Table 108 – Knowledge Type and Application Classification......................................................................................................................................495
Table 109 – Knowledge Types Applied to Solution Architecture................................................................................................................................496
Table 110 – Skills Framework for the Information Age (SFIA) Skill Level and Attribute Matrix..........................................................................497
Table 111 – SFIA Skills Categories and Individual Skills..............................................................................................................................................499
Table 112 – SFIA Skill Levels 4 to 6 Specification for Solution Architecture ............................................................................................................500
Table 113 – SFIA Skill Attributes for Solution Architecture Skill Level 4..................................................................................................................501
Table 114 – SFIA Skill Attributes for Solution Architecture Skill Level 5..................................................................................................................502
Table 115 – SFIA Skill Attributes for Solution Architecture Skill Level 6..................................................................................................................502
Table 116 – Partial List of Solution Architecture Description Languages..................................................................................................................514
Table 117 – Archimate Layers...........................................................................................................................................................................................518
Table 118 – Archimate Strategy Layer Elements............................................................................................................................................................519
Table 119 – Archimate Business Layer Elements...........................................................................................................................................................520
Table 120 – Archimate Application Layer Elements.....................................................................................................................................................521
Table 121 – Archimate Technology Layer Elements .....................................................................................................................................................523
Table 122 – Archimate Physical Layer Elements............................................................................................................................................................523
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Table 123 – Archimate Motivation Aspect Elements....................................................................................................................................................524
Table 124 – Enterprise Architecture Frameworks and Languages..............................................................................................................................531
Table 125 – Areas To Look For Innovation....................................................................................................................................................................537
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List of Figures
Figure 1 – Solution Architecture Focus of the Book........................................................................................................................................................19
Figure 2 – Summary Structure of this Book......................................................................................................................................................................21
Figure 3 – Overlapping Solution Architecture Capabilities and Areas of Solution Involvement and Knowledge................................................27
Figure 4 – High Level Context of Solution Design ..........................................................................................................................................................29
Figure 5 – Vitruvius’ Architecture Principles...................................................................................................................................................................30
Figure 6 – High-Level Logical Mainframe IT Architecture............................................................................................................................................32
Figure 7 – Scope of Complete Solution..............................................................................................................................................................................37
Figure 8 – Scope of Partial and Incomplete Solution ......................................................................................................................................................38
Figure 9 – Solution Delivery Externalities.........................................................................................................................................................................39
Figure 10 – Omission of Components from Solution Design Scope ............................................................................................................................39
Figure 11 – Convergence of Solution Components to Create Complete Operational Solution...............................................................................40
Figure 12 – Staged Delivery of Solution Components ....................................................................................................................................................40
Figure 13 – Organisation Core Change Domains............................................................................................................................................................41
Figure 14 – Extended Organisation Change Domain .....................................................................................................................................................42
Figure 15 – Solution Components Mapped to Organisation Change Domains .........................................................................................................42
Figure 16 – Solution Component Levels ...........................................................................................................................................................................44
Figure 17 – Sample Level 1 to Level 4 Solution Breakdown...........................................................................................................................................45
Figure 18 – Solution Components Contributing to Solution Delivery and Operation Costs...................................................................................46
Figure 19 – Total Solution Lifetime Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................46
Figure 20 – Solution Acquisition and Lifetime Operating Costs...................................................................................................................................47
Figure 21 – Sample Solution Lifetime Cumulative Cost Profile ....................................................................................................................................47
Figure 22 – Sources of Good and Poor Solution Delivery Estimates............................................................................................................................48
Figure 23 – Solution Design Boundaries...........................................................................................................................................................................49
Figure 24 – Solution Design Constraints...........................................................................................................................................................................50
Figure 25 – Solution Delivery Journey...............................................................................................................................................................................51
Figure 26 – IT Function as a Lens Focussing Business Needs On To Solutions .........................................................................................................52
Figure 27 – Multiple Partially Overlapping Solution Delivery Journeys......................................................................................................................53
Figure 28 – Overall Solution Delivery Journey.................................................................................................................................................................55
Figure 29 – Solution Delivery Failure ................................................................................................................................................................................55
Figure 30 – Information Loss Due to Multiple Handoffs During Solution Delivery .................................................................................................56
Figure 31 – Siloed Operation of Solution Delivery Disciplines .....................................................................................................................................56
Figure 32 – Goal of Solution Delivery – the Right Solution Implemented Successfully............................................................................................59
Figure 33 – Right Solution Delivered Successfully is in the Minority of all Solution Delivery Outcomes..............................................................59
Figure 34 – Field of Solution Delivery Project Success and Failure ..............................................................................................................................61
Figure 35 – Operational Solution Deficit – Degrees of Less for More..........................................................................................................................62
Figure 36 – Standish Group CHAOS Report Project Outcome Results 1994-2015....................................................................................................63
Figure 37 – Factors Affecting Good Solution Delivery Decisions.................................................................................................................................69
Figure 38 – Characteristics of Groupthink........................................................................................................................................................................71
Figure 39 – Scale and Complexity of Product Changes and Enhancements ...............................................................................................................74
Figure 40 – IT Architecture Disciplines.............................................................................................................................................................................76
Figure 41 – IT Architecture Two-Way Contribution to the Business ..........................................................................................................................77
Figure 42 – IT Architecture Discipline Involvement Throughout Solution Portfolio Delivery...............................................................................78
Figure 43 – Interactions Between IT Architecture Disciplines......................................................................................................................................78
Figure 44 – Solution Architecture – Bringing It All Together .......................................................................................................................................79
Figure 45 – Siloed Operation of Information Architecture Disciplines .......................................................................................................................80
Figure 46 – Nesting of Siloed Operations Within Solution Delivery and Within IT Architecture Disciplines .....................................................81
Figure 47 – Balance Between Run the Business and Change the Business Activities.................................................................................................82
Figure 48 – IT Architecture Principles ..............................................................................................................................................................................83
Figure 49 – IT Architecture Failings ..................................................................................................................................................................................84
Figure 50 – IT and Business Relationship Failings ..........................................................................................................................................................86
Figure 51 – Consequences of Failing Business and IT Relationship.............................................................................................................................86
Figure 52 – Growth of Shadow IT......................................................................................................................................................................................87
Figure 53 – Solution Design in an Outline Organisation Framework..........................................................................................................................93
Figure 54 – Organisation Context of Solution Architecture ..........................................................................................................................................94
Figure 55 – Interrelated Strategies – Business Strategy, Overall Organisation IT Strategy and Internal IT Function Strategy...........................96
Figure 56 – Problem and Solution Knowledge in the Solution Design Process..........................................................................................................97
Figure 57 – Problem and Solution Knowledge and Solution Design Complexity......................................................................................................97
Figure 58 – Problem and Solution Knowledge and Solution Design Options ............................................................................................................98
Figure 59 – Options for Problems and Solution Knowledge Options ..........................................................................................................................99
Figure 60 – Problem and Solution Knowns and Unknowns..........................................................................................................................................99
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Figure 61 – Maximising the Solution Knowns and Minimising the Unknowns ......................................................................................................100
Figure 62 – Solution Option Definition Steps................................................................................................................................................................100
Figure 63 – Solution Design Complexity Heatmap.......................................................................................................................................................101
Figure 64 – The Waterbed Analogy of Necessary Solution Complexity....................................................................................................................103
Figure 65 – Accumulating Solution Complexity............................................................................................................................................................104
Figure 66 – Simple and Complex Problems and Solutions ..........................................................................................................................................104
Figure 67 – Solution Complexity and Time to Deliver.................................................................................................................................................105
Figure 68 – Non-Linear Nature of Solution Delivery Complexity..............................................................................................................................108
Figure 69 – Adjusted Complexity Curve.........................................................................................................................................................................108
Figure 70 – Sample Solution Complexity Score on Solution Complexity Curve......................................................................................................111
Figure 71 – Sample Solution Complexity Dashboard ...................................................................................................................................................112
Figure 72 – Solution Complexity Dashboard With Not Applicable Complexity Factors .......................................................................................113
Figure 73 – Iterated Solution Delivery Phases................................................................................................................................................................114
Figure 74 – Expanded Set of Solution Delivery Steps....................................................................................................................................................115
Figure 75 – Solution Delivery Process with Solution Delivery Phase and Role Dimensions..................................................................................116
Figure 76 – Progress of Solution Delivery Through Phases and Roles.......................................................................................................................124
Figure 77 – Foundational Solution Delivery Activities.................................................................................................................................................125
Figure 78 – Sparse Business Stakeholder Requirements and the Complete Set of Solution Requirements..........................................................128
Figure 79 – Mapping the Requirements Space to the Solution Space.........................................................................................................................130
Figure 80 – Wider Requirements Engineering Landscape...........................................................................................................................................131
Figure 81 – Hierarchy of Information Technology, Business Processes and Value Achieved ...............................................................................136
Figure 82 – Lessons Learned from Large Solutions Implementations .......................................................................................................................138
Figure 83 – Process Optimisation Through Compression of Steps and Collapse of Handoffs ..............................................................................139
Figure 84 – Generic Representation of a Process...........................................................................................................................................................141
Figure 85 – Process Decomposition.................................................................................................................................................................................142
Figure 86 – Process Decomposition Example ................................................................................................................................................................142
Figure 87 – Identification of Fundamental Business Process Activity Sets................................................................................................................143
Figure 88 – Activity Linkage within Processes...............................................................................................................................................................144
Figure 89 – Process Inputs, Rules, Actions, Decisions and Results ............................................................................................................................144
Figure 90 – Process Groups...............................................................................................................................................................................................145
Figure 91 – Business Process Analysis High-Level Steps..............................................................................................................................................147
Figure 92 – Process Analysis Information Structure.....................................................................................................................................................148
Figure 93 – Business Process Design Success Factors...................................................................................................................................................149
Figure 94 – Business Process Design Standards and Approaches – Part 1................................................................................................................151
Figure 95 – Business Process Design Standards and Approaches – Part 2................................................................................................................151
Figure 96 – BPMN Pools and Lanes.................................................................................................................................................................................153
Figure 97 – BPMN Structure.............................................................................................................................................................................................153
Figure 98 – BPMN Flow Objects......................................................................................................................................................................................154
Figure 99 – Modifying BPMN ..........................................................................................................................................................................................155
Figure 100 – BPMN Event Modification.........................................................................................................................................................................157
Figure 101 – Solution Architecture Engagement Models.............................................................................................................................................160
Figure 102 – Mapping Business Need to Engagement Types ......................................................................................................................................161
Figure 103 – Generalised Business Engagement Structure ..........................................................................................................................................162
Figure 104 – Creating Customised Set of Activities, Roles and Deliverables ............................................................................................................163
Figure 105 – Possible Factors Driving the Need for a Business Engagement............................................................................................................164
Figure 106 – Business Engagement Change Domains..................................................................................................................................................165
Figure 107 – Architecture Engagement Extended Factors...........................................................................................................................................166
Figure 108 – Core and Extended Engagement Teams ..................................................................................................................................................167
Figure 109 – Business Engagement High Level Activities and Their Logical Sequence..........................................................................................168
Figure 110 – Business Engagement Activity Sequencing..............................................................................................................................................169
Figure 111 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 0. Define And Agree Engagement Scope...................................................................170
Figure 112 – Sample Table of Contents for Architecture Engagement Main Deliverable ......................................................................................175
Figure 113 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 1. Information Collection And Assessment..............................................................176
Figure 114 – What Customers Want...............................................................................................................................................................................179
Figure 115 – Data Relationship Diagram........................................................................................................................................................................181
Figure 116 – Business Solution Classification................................................................................................................................................................183
Figure 117 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 2. Define Vision, Business Principles And System Principles ................................184
Figure 118 – Business Model Canvass.............................................................................................................................................................................187
Figure 119 – Principles, Limitations and Assumptions Across Core Business Domains........................................................................................189
Figure 120 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 3. Document Business Processes, Entity Model, Capacity Planning And Solution
Approach..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................192
Figure 121 – Right-to-Left BPI and Left-to-Right BPR.................................................................................................................................................193
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Figure 122 – Process Decomposition...............................................................................................................................................................................194
Figure 123 – Doing and Managing Processes.................................................................................................................................................................195
Figure 124 – Process Attributes ........................................................................................................................................................................................195
Figure 125 – Extended Process Definition......................................................................................................................................................................197
Figure 126 – Sample Entity Relationship Diagram for Conceptual Model................................................................................................................198
Figure 127 – Sample Resource Entity Model..................................................................................................................................................................200
Figure 128 – Sample Capacity Planning Model View ...................................................................................................................................................200
Figure 129 – Spectrum of Solution Component Acquisition Options .......................................................................................................................201
Figure 130 – Combinations of Options ...........................................................................................................................................................................201
Figure 131 – Cost Estimation Process..............................................................................................................................................................................203
Figure 132 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 4. Document Systems, Applications And Functions................................................206
Figure 133 – Inventory of Interfaces, Exchanges and Transfers..................................................................................................................................207
Figure 134 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 5. Define Organisation, Infrastructure And Data.....................................................209
Figure 135 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 6. Conduct Solution And Product Evaluation And Selection.................................214
Figure 136 – Approaches To Product and Service Evaluation And Selection...........................................................................................................215
Figure 137 – Core Elements of the Product and Service Evaluation And Selection Process...................................................................................216
Figure 138 – High Level Steps of Product/Service Evaluation And Selection Process.............................................................................................217
Figure 139 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 7. Design Model Architecture......................................................................................222
Figure 140 – Options for Existing Technical Infrastructure ........................................................................................................................................224
Figure 141 – Dimensions of Verification of Target Architecture................................................................................................................................225
Figure 142 – Steps Within Business Engagement Activity 8. Consolidate, Finalise And Review Design .............................................................226
Figure 143 – Generalised Solution Design Process........................................................................................................................................................227
Figure 144 – Generalised Solution Design Process Mapped to Engagement Types.................................................................................................228
Figure 145 – Function Involvement During Solution Design......................................................................................................................................230
Figure 146 – Decision Points Within the Solution Design Process.............................................................................................................................231
Figure 147 – Solution Design Work Not Proceed With During the Design Process ...............................................................................................232
Figure 148 – Iterations During Solution Design Process..............................................................................................................................................233
Figure 149 – Representation of Complete Generalised Solution Design Process.....................................................................................................233
Figure 150 – Analysis and Decision Loops......................................................................................................................................................................234
Figure 151 – Analysis Paralysis And Decision Avoidance............................................................................................................................................234
Figure 152 – Solution Design Journey and Solution Architecture Engagement Types ...........................................................................................235
Figure 153 – Path from Problematic Situation to Solution ..........................................................................................................................................237
Figure 154 – Getting the Scope of the Early Engagement Right..................................................................................................................................239
Figure 155 – Resolution Needs To Be Bridge From the As-Is Problematic Situation to a To-Be Improved Situation.......................................240
Figure 156 – Core Early Engagement Process ................................................................................................................................................................241
Figure 157 – Problem and Resolution Options ..............................................................................................................................................................242
Figure 158 – Early Engagement Information Gathering Aspects................................................................................................................................243
Figure 159 – Activity Model Layers..................................................................................................................................................................................248
Figure 160 – Layers of Detail in Activity Models...........................................................................................................................................................249
Figure 161 – Different Activity Views by Different Engagement Business Participants .........................................................................................250
Figure 162 – Sample Rich Picture.....................................................................................................................................................................................252
Figure 163 – Resolutions and Their Paths to Implementation ....................................................................................................................................254
Figure 164 – Dimensions of Internal Organisation Change.........................................................................................................................................255
Figure 165 – Different Profiles of Organisation Changes for Different Resolution Options..................................................................................256
Figure 166 – Solution Value Equation.............................................................................................................................................................................257
Figure 167 – Resolution Success Factors .........................................................................................................................................................................257
Figure 168 – Superset Of Constraints Sets Will Narrow Range Of Available, Realistic And Achievable Resolution Options..........................258
Figure 169 – Moving From The As-Is To The Target To-Be Situation......................................................................................................................258
Figure 170 – Attrition from Initial Business Concept to Operational Solution........................................................................................................259
Figure 171 – Decision Making During the Solution Design Journey .........................................................................................................................259
Figure 172 – Step 1 – Define Existing and New Business Processes ...........................................................................................................................262
Figure 173 – Step 2 – Define New and Existing Functions...........................................................................................................................................263
Figure 174 – Sample Process and Function Breakdown – Buy a Product or Service ...............................................................................................264
Figure 175 – Step 3 – Define New and Existing Actors.................................................................................................................................................265
Figure 176 – Step 4 – Existing or New Systems and Applications...............................................................................................................................266
Figure 177 – Examples of Levels of Detail of System Components.............................................................................................................................267
Figure 178 – Step 5 – List Interfaces and Data Exchanges Between System Components ......................................................................................268
Figure 179 – Step 6 – Identify Actor System Interactions.............................................................................................................................................269
Figure 180 – Step 7 – Identify Actor Actor Interactions...............................................................................................................................................270
Figure 181 – Basic Solution on a Page .............................................................................................................................................................................271
Figure 182 – Step 8 – List Data Impacts ..........................................................................................................................................................................272
Figure 183 – Step 9 – Data Exchanges Required Between Systems.............................................................................................................................273