review of land and soil degradation in India and Chhattisgarh

1. LAND DEGRADATION AND
THEIR RESTORATION
TECHNOLOGY
PRESENTED BY:
STANLEY SAMUEL
(MSc. Previous)
(Department of soil
science)
GUIDED BY:
Dr. ANURAG
(DEPT. SOIL SCIENCE AND
AGRICULTURE
CHEMISTRY)

2. CONTENT:
▪ Land degradation
▪ Indian scenario
▪ Land degradation scenario of Chhattisgarh
▪ Types of land degradation
▪ Methodologies of land degradation
▪ Procedure ,Assessment ,Classification , Factors
▪ Land restoration
▪ Methods used in land restoration and revegetation
▪ Explanatory video of land degradation scenario
▪ Conclusion
▪ References

3. LAND DEGRADATION
▪ Land degradation can be considered in terms of the
loss of actual or potential productivity or utility as a
result of natural or anthropic factors; it is the decline in
land quality or reduction in its productivity.
▪ In the context of productivity, land degradation results
from a mismatch between land quality and land use
(Beinroth et al., 1994).
▪ Mechanisms that initiate land degradation include:
1. Physical processes
2. Chemical processes
3. Biological processes (Lal, 1994).
SOURCE-https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological.../land-degradation

4. ▪ Physical processes are a decline in soil
structure leading to crusting, compaction,
erosion, desertification, anaerobism,
environmental pollution, and
unsustainable use of natural resources.
▪ Chemical processes include acidification,
leaching, salinization, decrease in cation
retention capacity, and fertility depletion
salinization
crusting

5. LAND DEGRADATION
▪ Currently some 6–7 million
hectares are lost annually
through soil erosion,
desertification affects about
one-sixth of the world's
population and one-quarter of
the world's land, and
salinization affects some 20
million hectares of irrigated
land.
▪ India losing 5334 million tonnes
annually .(THE HINDU 2010)
SOURCE-https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Information-needs-of-farmers-through-the-agricultural-
Continent Total area
Degraded area
†
% degraded
Africa 14.326 10.458 73
Asia 18.814 13.417 71
Australia and
the Pacific
7.012 3.759 54
Europe 1.456 0.943 65
North America 5.782 4.286 74
South America 4.207 3.058 73
Total 51.597 35.922 70

6. Indian Scenario of land degradation:
Types of land degradation Area in million hectares
Water eroded 111.26
Wind eroded 38.74
Water logged 6
Alkali soils 2.50
Saline soil 2.50
Ravine and gullies 3.97
Shifting cultivation 4.36
Riverine 2.73
Total problem area 175.06
Total geographical area 347.12
Source –forest survey of India(2005)

7. IMAGE SOURCE-BHU WEBPAGE/www.bhu.ac.in/research_pub/...

8. Source-icar webpage/https://icar.org.in/node/8099

9. LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL EROSION
IN CHHATTISGARH
Estimated Soil Loss:
The soil loss m the state indicates that about 3.5M ha
area (26.2%) is under the very slight erosion class.
▪ It cover; Raipur and Durg districts.
▪ About 2 M ha area (15%) is under slight erosion class.
▪ It covers Kanker and Bastar districts.
▪ Moderate 1.21 M ha (9%); moderately severe 1.36 M ha
(10%), and severe classes cover 2.39 M ha (17.7%) is
restricted to western parts and hilly areas of other parts
of the state.
krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/2034219/1/156.pdf

10. Scenario
krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/2034219/1/156.pdf

11. Methodology of Land Degradation
▪ Land information system should consist of RS, GIS and modeling, which can be
expressed as following formula:
▪ Spatial data + Statistical data + Attribute data + Modeling
Source-FAO. 1976. A Framework For Land Evaluation. FAO Soil Bulletin No. 32. ILRI Publication No. 22.

12. Procedure of Assessment of Land Degradation:
1. Comprehensive Land Type Mapping, Land Cover and Vegetation Index Study
2. Land Characteristics Data Base Construction based on Land Type Mapping Units.
3. Land Information System (LIS) Construction: Maps are digitized within
ARC/INFO,ILWIS or other environment
4. Set up an applied Land Information System: Land Type Units, integrated with land
cover and vegetation index, are compared with land degradation classification
systems.
5. Reinterpretation of Land Type Map into Land Degradation Map: Extraction,
Integration and Conversion of the Spatial (polygon etc.) data e.g. for the Land
Degradation Map Reproduction.
6. Conversion and Reconstruction of Statistic data.
7. As the map and land inventory are produced, then sustainable land use planning
can be carried on.
SOURCE-FAO. 2004. A Framework For Land Evaluation. FAO Soil Bulletin No. 32.

13. Land Degradation Classification Systems:
▪ Land degradation classification system must include :
1. Degradation Types
2. Degrees within each type
3. Degradation units

14. 1.Degradation Types
▪ There are four kinds of land
degradation recognized:
1. Desertification (D),
2. Soil Erosion (E),
3. Secondary Salinization (S) and
4. Wasted Land (W).
▪ (There must also be some transition
areas influenced by two or three
factors that is remarked with two
Letters such as DE)
Source-Beek, K J. 1980. From soil survey interpretation to land evaluation. ILRI Reprint No. 15. Reprinted from
Land Reclamation and Water Management , Publication no. 27, ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands

15. 2.Degradation Classes
▪ The classes are numbered in Arabic numbers, with increasing degrees of
degradation within the type, for example, D1, D2, E1, ...,E5 etc.
▪ Class 1 potential degradation, but no evidence or improved.
▪ Class 2 light degradation, mainly vegetation quality degraded so that its
utilization value is reduced.
▪ Class 3 moderate degradation, vegetation, and /or soils are influenced.
▪ Class 4 severe degradation, vegetation, soils and landform are strongly
influenced so that land use had to be changed from former practice.
▪ Class 5 very severe degradation, land lost its productivity and is very
difficult to reclaim.
3.Degradation Units
▪ They are indicated as land type units, e.g. D1A22, E3H24.

16. Land Degradation Factors:
1. Soil erodibility (e)
2. Slope degree(p)
3. Farming land use (f)
4. vegetation type and vegetation coverage (v)

17. Types of land degradation Assessed:
Land degradation have been grouped into six classes:
▪ 1.Water erosion
▪ Water erosion covers all forms of soil erosion by water, including sheet and rill
erosion and gullying. Human-induced intensification of land sliding, caused by
vegetation clearance, road construction, etc., is also included.
▪ 2.Wind erosion
▪ It refers to loss of soil by wind, occurring primarily in dry regions.

18. ▪ 3.Soil fertility decline
▪ Decline in fertility is indeed a major effect of erosion, the term is used
here of cover effects of processes other than erosion. The main
processes involved are:
i. Lowering of soil organic master, with associated decline in soil
biological activity;
ii. degradation of soil physical properties (structure, aeration, water
holding capacity), as brought about by reduced organic master;
iii. adverse changes in soil nutrient resources, including reduction in
availability of the major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium),
onset of micronutrient deficiencies, and development of nutrient
imbalances.
iv. buildup of toxicities, primarily acidification through incorrect fertilizer
use.

19. ▪ 4.Waterlogging
▪ It Is the lowering in land productivity through the rise in groundwater
close to the soil surface. Also included under this heading is the
severe form, termed ponding, where the water table rises above the
surface.
▪ 5.Salinization
▪ It is used in its broad sense, to refer to all types of soil degradation
brought about by the increase of salts in the soil.
▪ 6.Lowering of the water table
▪ It is a self-explanatory form of land degradation, brought about
through tube well pumping of groundwater for irrigation exceeding the
natural recharge capacity. This occurs in areas of non-saline ('sweet')
groundwater. Pumping for urban and industrial use is a further cause.

20. Other types of degradation included
Further classes are recognized as types of land
degradation:-
▪ Forest degradation :-This is the reduction of biotic resources
and lowering of productive capacity of forests through
human activities.
▪ Rangeland degradation:- This is the lowering of the
productive capacity of rangelands..
▪ Acid sulphate formation: a serious but localized form of
degradation, which may occur on drainage of coastal
swamps
▪ Soil pollution, from industrial or mining effluents:- to the
atmosphere, rivers or groundwater. This is an important
concern in the region, but is strongly localized.

21. LAND RESTORATION:
▪ Land restoration is the process of ecological
restoration of a site to a natural
landscape and habitat, safe for humans, wildlife,
and plant communities.
▪ Land restoration is not the same as land
reclamation, where existing ecosystems are
altered or destroyed to give way for cultivation or
construction.
▪ Land restoration can enhance the supply of
valuable ecosystem services that benefit people.

22. RESTORATION TECHNOLOGY
1. Improvement in soil organic carbon pool
▪ Crop yields can be increased by 20–70 kg ha−1 for wheat, 10–
50 kg ha−1 for rice, and 30–300 kg ha−1 for maize with every
1 Mg ha−1 increase in soil organic carbon pool in the root zone.
▪ Adoption of recommended management practices on agricultural
lands and degraded soils would enhance soil quality including the
available water holding capacity, cation exchange capacity, soil
aggregation, and susceptibility to crusting and erosion. Increase in
soil organic carbon pool by 1 Mg ha−1 y−1 can increase food grain
production by 32 million Mg y−1 in developing countries.

23. PEATLAND RESTORATION:
▪ Organic or peaty soils accumulated large quantities
of carbon due to anaerobic decomposition of the
organic matter. Anaerobic decomposition, or
decomposition under absence of oxygen, occurs
due to the flooded conditions of peatlands.
▪ When converted to agricultural lands the soils are
drained, which removes the anaerobic conditions
as it introduces oxygen into the soil.
▪ This process favours aerobic decomposition
(decomposition with oxygen) which results in high
CO2 and N20 fluxes (IPCC, 2007).

24. METHODS USED IN LAND RESTORATION AND
REVEGETATION
▪ a) On cultivated land:
1. Agro-silvicultural methods
▪ These are practiced to restore the soil fertility. The traditional
system under rainfed conditions, is to restore the lost fertility
through bush fallow system. Vegetation, mainly bushes, colonise
the area naturally.
Example: Acacia senegal

25. ▪ 2. Shelterbelts
▪ These are used to protect both irrigated and rainfed
farms. Their main function, at present, is to protect
valuable agricultural land and irrigation canals from
creeping sands.
▪ Shelterbelts reduce wind velocity, improve the
microclimate and increase yields.
▪ Field investigations in dry areas show that crop
production may be increased by as much as 300%
while the increase in average years is often 30 to
50%.
▪ Mostly Eucalyptus, Casuarina sp., populus and prosop
is. Seedlings are used for establishment.

26. ▪ 3. Plantations on seriously degraded irrigated or rainfed crop
land
▪ Salinization is of common occurrence in irrigated lands,
plantations of eucalyptus were established in some of these
degraded lands to bring them back to production.
▪ The product is to be used to establish wood-based industries.
▪ Eucalyptus, microtheca plantations are established on such
sites.

27. ▪ C) On Bare land: sand and sand-dune fixation:
▪ When erosion reaches an acute level, and where sand starts to
move and threatens habitations, establishments, roads and
agricultural land, sand-dune fixation is carried out.
▪ This occurs along the coasts of seas and oceans or in
continental areas.
▪ The conventional method used is the establishment of hedges
of stalks of dry grass and/or bushes to restrain temporarily
sand movement until the dunes are planted with trees, shrubs
and grasses.
▪ Eucalypts, pines, and acacias are used.

28. ▪ (ii) Active intervention methods:
▪ These require the actions of man to restore the degraded land and
vegetation.
▪ a. Sand and sand-dune fixation through artificial sowing of plants
including tree, shrub and grass species.
▪ b. Establishment of shelterbelts on irrigated and rainfed cultivated land,
and for protection of habitations and infrastructures.
▪ c. Establishment of plantations on degraded lands, especially on irrigated
degraded lands (salinity and waterlogging). These offer a great potential
for generation of wood-based industries in dry lands.
▪ d. Establishment of tree, shrub and grass plantations of value to restore
the fertility of degraded lands where soil fertirainfed cultivation is
practiced (use of Acacia and leguminous plants to restore lity).
▪ e. Seeding and planting catchment areas and banks of permanent and
seasonal water-courses for regulation of water-flows and erosion control.

29. ▪ Use of organic farming techniques:
Organic farming techniques that help restore the soil include use of
green manure (uprooted or sown crop parts incorporated or left on
topsoil), cover crops, crop rotation and organic compost.
A) Green manure and cover crops:
▪ Green manures and cover crops serve as mulch to the soil preventing
the soil from wind/water erosion and moisture loss.
▪ They also increase the soil organic matter content as they decompose
in the soil.
▪ Green manure and cover crops that are legumes (plants which
produce seeds in pods) have nitrogen fixing ability. The nitrogen fixing
bacteria in their root nodules help capture nitrogen from the
atmosphere.
▪ Green manure and cover crops suppress weed growth.

30. B) Organic compost:
Compost is a mixture of decomposed plant parts and animal
waste.
▪ The key benefit of composting is that it increases soil organic
matter content.
▪ Organic matter improves the soil fertility, the soil structure and
its water holding capacity.
▪ It also sequesters carbon in the soil.
C) Crop rotation: This is a farming practice which involves
growing different types of crops in one location sequentially.
This practice reduces soil erosion, increases the soil fertility and
subsequently crop yield.

31. D)Soil remediation:
Soil remediation involves the removal of harmful contaminants such as,
heavy metals, sewage sludge, coal tar, carcinogenic hydrocarbons, liquors
and petroleum from soils.
Soil remediation can be achieved using biological techniques. This method
is called bioremediation. Some examples of bioremediation techniques
include:
▪ • Phytoremediation: The use of plants to remove contaminants from soils
or to degrade contaminants to a lesser toxic form. Some plants have the
ability to extract contaminants from soils. This process is called
phytoextraction.
▪ The willow (Salix viminalis) is a shrub credited for its ability to extract
cadmium from soils.
▪ . Phyto-extraction is one technique in phytoremediation. Some other
techniques are phyto-stabilization, phyto-transformation and phyto-
stimulation.

32. ▪ • Bioaugmentation:
▪ This is the introduction of genetically modified micro organisms into
contaminated soils with the aim of degrading contaminants.
▪ The efficiency of this technique depends on a number of factors, some of
which are the physico-chemical properties of the soil and the ability of the
introduced micro organisms to compete successfully with the indigenous
soil microflora
▪ Land-based treatments:
▪ This includes techniques like land farming and composting. In land
farming, contaminated soils are taken to land farming sites and
continuously overturned and tilled to allow aeration. In composting, micro
organisms present in organic material are used to biodegrade soil
contaminants.

33. ▪ Desalinization:
▪ Soil salinization occurs when high levels of soluble salts accumulate in the
root zone. Saline soils frustrate crop growth and reduce crop yield. Soil
salinization is encouraged by
• Formation from parent materials with high salt content
• Low rainfall in arid regions where there is insufficient water to leach salts
• Poor soil drainage system
• Excessive exposure of soil to salty irrigation water or chemicals
Some methods used to restore saline soils are:
▪ • Installing drainage systems to wash salts down the soil profile (this method
is expensive and complicated).
▪ • Leaching out saline soils by applying water to contaminated soils to wash
salts beyond the root zone.

34. ▪ • Use of salt tolerant plants (halophytes) as bio-
remediants:-
▪ Halophytes accumulate salts in their shoots and other aerial
plant parts.
Examples include 1.Allenrolfea occidentalis (iodine bush),
2.Salicornia bigelovii (dwarf saltwort), 3.Panicum virgatum
(switch grass),4. Sesuvium portulacastrum (sea purslane).
• Application of gypsum (calcium sulphate dehydrate) to sodic
soils. Sodic soils have high content of sodium chloride.
Gypsum mixed into the layers of sodic soils replaces sodium
with calcium, reducing the sodium level

35. CONCLUSION
▪ 1. More than 6-7 million hectare of land are degraded annually and increasing per
year due to improper management and ever increasing demand and increasing
population which should be controlled with proper restoration technology and
creating awareness towards land use planning.
▪ 2.Traditional methods of restoration can be used for small area to restore land .
▪ 3. Large effected degraded land are hard to restore and are much more expensive.
FINAL REMARK-ITS BETTER TO TAKE CARE OF SOIL AND LAND BEFORE ITS GET LATE
TO RECOVER.

37. ▪ Ayyad, M.A. Soil - vegetation - atmosphere
interactions. In arid-land (1981) ecosystems Vol. 2,
pp. 9-31, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge,
U.R.
▪ Ben Salem, 8. and Eren T.M. Forestry in A Sandy
World. (1982) Unasylva, Vol. 34 No. 135, pp. 8-12,
FAO, Rome.
▪ Grainger, A. Desertification. Earthscan -
International Institute for (1984) Environment and
Development - IIED, London. Second edition.
▪ Image source:-
▪ Icar/bhu/google webpage
▪ Video source :–
▪ Webpage-maycho india pvt limited