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Prepared By Prof.Pratiksha Patil
                                   1
CONTENT
Sr.no   Chapters                             Pg no

1.      Organizational Behavior              4-11

2.      Foundations of Individual Behavior   12-30

3.      Value,Attitudes & Job Satisfaction   31-42

4.      Personality & Emotions               43-73

5.      Perception                           74-87

6.      Motivation                           88-100

7.      Foundations of Group Behavior        101-125


                                                       2
Sr.no   Chapters

8.      Interpersonal Skills                  126-143

9.      Power & Politics in Organization      144-152

10.     Leadership                            153-175

11.     Organizational change & Development   176-208

12.     Organizational Culture                209-216

13.     Conflict Management                   217-250




                                                        3
WHAT IS OB??
The multidisciplinary field that seeks knowledge of behavior,
     attitudes, & motivation in organizational settings by
 systematically studying individual, group, and organizational
                            processes




                                                                 4
Characteristics of the Field of OB

   OB applies the scientific method to practical managerial
    problems
   OB focuses on three levels of analysis: individuals, groups, and
    organizations
   OB is multidisciplinary in nature
   OB seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and the
    quality of life at work
   OB is more than common sense




                                                                       5
Meaning & nature of management

   Management is the act of getting people together to
    accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources
    efficiently and effectively.
    Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or
    directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or
    more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of
    accomplishing a goal.
   Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of
    human resources, financial resources, technological resources
    and natural resources.




                                                                        6
Functions of managers
 Planning
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Directing
 Controlling




                        7
Level & skills of management
 Top level-Conceptual skills
 Middle level-Human skills
 Low level- Technical




                                8
Managerial roles….
   Interpersonal
-   Figurehead
-   Leader
-   Liaison
   Informational
-   Monitor
-   Disseminator
-   Spokesperson
   Decisional
-   Entrepreneur
-   Disturbance handler
-   Resource allocator
-   Negotiator



                             9
Contributing discipline to OB
 Psychology
 Social psychology
 Anthropology
 Sociology
 Political science
 Engineering




                                10
Challenges of OB
 Increasing number of global organizations
 Utilizing IT & E-commerce
 Building a competitive advantage
 Maintaining a diverse workforce




                                              11
Foundations of Individual Behavior




                                     12
Biographical Characteristics
   Biographical Characteristics
-   Age
-   Gender
-   Marital status
-   Length of service with an organization




                                             13
Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence
Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform
the various tasks in a job.


Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental activities.


Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence contains four subparts:
cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

                                              2–
                                              14
Dimensions of
   Intellectual Ability

• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Memory


                          15
Physical Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks
demanding stamina, dexterity,
strength, and similar
characteristics.




                                2–
                                16
Nine Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength   Flexibility Factors
                        5. Extent flexibility
                        6. Dynamic flexibility
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
                                                 Source: Adapted from
8. Balance                                       HRMagazine published by
                                                 the Society for Human
                                                 Resource Management,
9. Stamina                                       Alexandria, VA.



                                                                           2–
                                                                           17
The Ability-Job Fit


             Ability-Job
Employee‟s       Fit        Job‟s Ability
 Abilities                 Requirements




                                            2–
                                            18
Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.


       Learning
       • Involves change
       • Is relatively permanent
       • Is acquired through experience



                                              2–
                                              19
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.


                      Key Concepts
                      • Unconditioned stimulus
                      • Unconditioned response
                      • Conditioned stimulus
                      • Conditioned response
                                                 2–
                                                 20
Source: The Far Side ® by
Gary Larson © 1993 Far
Works, Inc. All rights
reserved. Used with
permission.
  E X H I B IT
      2–3                   2–
                            21
Theories of Learning (cont‟d)
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.



             Key Concepts
             • Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
             • Conditioned (learned) behavior
             • Reinforcement


                                                       2–
                                                       22
Theories of Learning (cont‟d)
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.


               Key Concepts
               • Attentional processes
               • Retention processes
               • Motor reproduction processes
               • Reinforcement processes

                                                2–
                                                23
Theories of Learning (cont‟d)
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.


Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and
  permanence.


                                                           2–
                                                           24
Types of Reinforcement
   Positive reinforcement
    ◦ Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
   Negative reinforcement
    ◦ Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
      desired behavior occurs.
   Punishment
    ◦ Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
      undesirable behavior.
   Extinction
    ◦ Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to
      cause its cessation.
                                                          2–
                                                          25
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.



Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.

                                   2–
                                   26
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont‟d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.


Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.



                                      2–
                                      27
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont‟d)




Fixed-ratio




                                    E X H I B IT
                                        2–4        2–
                                                   28
Intermittent Schedules of
Reinforcement




                            E X H I B IT
                                2–5        2–
                                           29
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont‟d)




                                       E X H I B I T 2–
                                          5 (cont‟d)      2–
                                                          30
Values, Attitude & Job Satisfaction




                                      31
Values
Values represent basic convictions that-
  A specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is
  personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
  converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.


  Value is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or
  desirable.




                                                             32
Importance of Values

       1                     2                     3
Values lay the       Individuals enter
foundation for the   organizations with
understanding of     notions of what is    Values generally
attitudes and        right and wrong       influence
motivation because   with which they       attitudes and
they influence our   interpret behaviors   behavior.
perceptions.         or outcomes




                                                              33
Types of Values
 Rokeach Value Survey…


                    VALUES




Terminal                     Instrumenta
Values                       l Values




                                           34
Terminal Values
   Desirable end-states of
   existence; the goals that
   a person would like to
   achieve during his or her
   lifetime.




                               35
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of
behavior or means of
achieving one’s
terminal values.




                           36
Attitude
Attitude is defined as “a learned
predisposition to respond in a
consistently favorable or unfavorable
manner with respect to a given
object.” That is, attitudes affect
behavior at a different level than do
values…




                                        37
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

Cognitive component of an attitude
   ◦ The opinion or belief segment of an attitude



Affective component of an attitude
   • The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude




Behavioral component of an attitude
    • An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
      something



                                                                  38
Job satisfaction
  Job satisfaction essentially reflects the extent to
  which an individual likes his or her job. Formally
  defined, job satisfaction is an affective or
  emotional response toward various facets of
  one’s job…




                                                        39
Causes of Job Satisfaction
                         Discrepancies

                              B


  Need
                 A                           C        Value
Fulfillment                                        Attainment
                           Causes




Dispositional/       E                   D       Equity
   Genetic
Components


                                                                40
   Factors contributing Job Satisfaction
-   Mentally challenging work
-   Personality job-fit
-   Equitable rewards
-   Supportive working conditions
-   Supportive colleagues
-   Whistle blowing
-   Social responsibility

                                            41
   Types of Managerial ethics
-   Immoral management
-   Moral management
-   Amoral management
-   Intentional
-   Unintentional



                                 42
Personality




              43
What is Personality?
When we talk of personality, we don‟t mean that a
person has charm, a positive attitude toward life, a
smiling face, or is a finalist for “ Happiest and
Friendliest” in this year‟s Miss America contest.
When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a
dynamic concept describing the growth and
development of a person‟s whole psychological system.
Rather than looking at parts of the person, personality
looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the
sum of the parts.



                                   4–44
What is Personality?




                   4–45
What is Personality ?
 The specific qualities, attributes, traits,
  factors, and mannerisms that distinguish
  one individual from other individuals is
  known as personality.

   In other words, "those inner psychological
    characteristics that both determine
    and reflect how a person responds to his
    or he environment.
                                                46
Personality Determinants
   • Heredity
   • Environment
   • Situation

Heredity: refers to those factors that were determined at conception.
Physical structure, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, energy level
etc.
Environment: Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality
formation are the culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning,
the norms among our family, friends and social groups etc.
Situation: A third, the situation, influences the effects of heredity and
environment on personality. An individual‟s generally stable and
consistent, does change in different situations.

                                                    4–47
 Brain
 Biofeedback
 Physical features
 Family factors
 Social factors
 Situational factors




                        48
Personality Traits




   Sixteen
Primary Traits




                          4–49
Personality and Consumer Behavior
Nature of Personality
 Three distinct properties of central
  importance are as follows:-
Personality reflects individual differences.
 For e.g.: high in venture, low in venture
Personality is consistent and enduring .
 For e.g.: newly available brands may cause
  change
Personality can change.
 For e.g.: marriage, birth of a child, change in
  job
                                                    50
Theories of Personality
   Freudian theory
    ◦ Unconscious needs or drives are at the heart
      of human motivation
   Neo-Freudian personality theory
    ◦ Social relationships are fundamental to the
      formation and development of personality
   Trait theory
    ◦ Quantitative approach to personality as a set
      of psychological traits


                                                      51
Freudian Theory
   Id
    ◦ Warehouse of primitive or instinctual needs for
      which individual seeks immediate satisfaction
   Superego
    ◦ Individual‟s internal expression of society‟s moral and
      ethical codes of conduct
   Ego
    ◦ Individual‟s conscious control that balances the
      demands of the id and superego



                                                                52
   Neo-Freudian /Social Cultural Theory
    ◦   Sensing-thinking
    ◦   Sensing Feeling
    ◦   Intuiting-thinking
    ◦   Intuiting-Feeling




                                           53
Trait Theory
 Personality theory with a focus on
  psychological characteristics
 Trait - any distinguishing, relatively
  enduring way in which one individual
  differs from another
 Personality is linked to how consumers
  make their choices or to consumption of
  a broad product category - not a specific
  brand

                                              54
   Role of Personality in understanding
    Consumer Diversity
    ◦   Optimal Stimulation Level
    ◦   Need for Cognition
    ◦   Dogmatism
    ◦   Susceptibility to the Influence
    ◦   Self-Monitoring Behavior
   Emotion
    ◦ Major Dimensions are PAD(Pleasure, Arousal
      and Dominance)

                                                   55
Trait Theory


   Innovativeness               The degree to which
   Dogmatism                     consumers are
   Social character              receptive to new
                                  products, new services,
   Need for uniqueness
                                  or new practices
   Optimum stimulation
    level
   Variety-novelty seeking
                                                            56
Trait Theory


   Innovativeness               A personality trait that
   Dogmatism                     reflects the degree of
   Social character              rigidity a person displays
                                  toward the unfamiliar and
   Need for uniqueness
                                  toward information that is
   Optimum stimulation           contrary to his or her
    level                         own established beliefs
   Variety-novelty seeking
                                                          57
Trait Theory


   Innovativeness                 Ranges on a continuum for
   Dogmatism                       inner-directedness to other-
                                    directedness
   Social character
                                   Inner-directedness
   Need for uniqueness
                                     ◦ rely on own values when
   Optimum stimulation level          evaluating products
   Variety-novelty seeking          ◦ Innovators
                                   Other-directedness
                                     ◦ look to others
                                     ◦ less likely to be innovators
                                                                      58
Trait Theory


   Innovativeness               Consumers who avoid
   Dogmatism                     appearing to conform
   Social character              to expectations or
                                  standards of others
   Need for uniqueness
   Optimum stimulation
    level
   Variety-novelty seeking
                                                         59
Trait Theory


   Innovativeness                 A personality trait that
   Dogmatism                       measures the level or amount
                                    of novelty or complexity that
   Social character
                                    individuals seek in their
   Need for uniqueness             personal experiences
   Optimum stimulation level      High OSL consumers tend to
   Variety-novelty seeking         accept risky and novel
                                    products more readily than low
                                    OSL consumers.

                                                               60
Trait Theory


   Innovativeness             Measures a consumer‟s
   Dogmatism                   degree of variety seeking
   Social character           Examples include:

   Need for uniqueness           ◦ Exploratory Purchase
                                    Behavior
   Optimum stimulation
                                  ◦ Use Innovativeness
    level
                                  ◦ Vicarious Exploration
   Variety-novelty seeking
                                                            61
Social learning theory




                         62
Major Personality Attributes
    Influencing OB
 Locus of control
 Machiavellianism
 Self-esteem
 Self-monitoring
 Propensity for risk taking
 Type A personality




                               4–63
Locus of Control




                   4–64
Machiavellianism




       Conditions Favoring High Machs
       • Direct interaction
       • Minimal rules and regulations
       • Distracting emotions




                                 4–65
Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring




                  4–66
Risk-Taking
   High Risk-taking Managers
    ◦ Make quicker decisions.
    ◦ Use less information to make decisions.
    ◦ Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
      organizations.
   Low Risk-taking Managers
    ◦ Are slower to make decisions.
    ◦ Require more information before making decisions.
    ◦ Exist in larger organizations with stable environments.
   Risk Propensity
    ◦ Aligning managers‟ risk-taking propensity to job
      requirements should be beneficial to organizations.


                                    4–67
Personality Types




                    4–68
Personality Types




                    4–69
Achieving Personality-Job Fit

                Personality Types
                • Realistic
                • Investigative
                • Social
                • Conventional
                • Enterprising
                • Artistic




                        4–70
Relationships
   among
Occupational
 Personality
    Types




                4–71
Emotions- Why Emotions Were
Ignored in OB
   The “myth of rationality”
    ◦ Organizations are not emotion-free.
   Emotions of any kind are disruptive to
    organizations.
    ◦ Original OB focus was solely on the effects of
      strong negative emotions that interfered with
      individual and organizational efficiency.




                               4–72
What Are Emotions?

                            Affect
              A broad range of emotions that people
                          experience.



Emotions                              Moods
Intense feelings that are             Feelings that tend to be
directed at someone or                less intense than emotions
something.                            and that lack a contextual
                                      stimulus.




                                            4–73
Perception




             74
“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE,

WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”




                                     75
Perception

“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process
 through which we interpret and organize sensory information to
produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.”

“ Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of
   the world around us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to
   categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of
   existing knowledge.

“ A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
  impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.




                                                                                   76
‹#›
The Perceptual Process


1.   Sensation                       3. Organization
      ◦ An individual‟s ability to      ◦ The process of placing
        detect stimuli in the             selected perceptual
        immediate environment.            stimuli into a framework
2.   Selection                            for “storage.”
      ◦ The process a person         4. Translation
        uses to eliminate some          ◦ The stage of the
        of the stimuli that have          perceptual process at
        been sensed and to                which stimuli are
        retain others for further         interpreted and given
        processing.                       meaning.

                                                                     78
‹#›
 Constancy
 Motion perception
 Form perception
 Geometrical illusions




                          80
Factors influencing perception
 In the perceiver
 In the object/target being perceived
 In the context of the situation in which the
  perception is made.
 Characteristics of the perceiver:
1. Attitudes
2. Moods
3. Motives
4. Self-concept
5. Interest
6. Expectations
                                                 81
   Characteristics of the target:
-   Physical appearance
-   Verbal communication
-   Non-verbal communication

   Characteristics of the situation:



                                        82
   Factors influencing Perception
                                Factors in the perceiver
                                • Attitudes
                                • Motives
                                • Interests
                                • Experience
                                • Expectations


     Factors in the situation
                                    Perception
     • Time
     • Work Setting
     • Social Setting

                                Factors in the Target
                                • Motion
                                • Sounds
                                • Size
                                • Background
                                • Proximity
                                • Similarity

                                                           83
Shortcuts in judging others/barriers to perception

   Selective Perception :

    People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests,

    background, experience and attitudes.

   Halo Effect :

    Drawing a general impressions about an individual on the basis of a single

    characteristics.




                                                                                  84
   Contrast Effect :

      Evaluation of a person‟s characteristics that are effected by comparisons with

    other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same

    characteristics.

   First-impression error

   Projection :

     Attributing one's own characteristics to other people.

   Stereotyping :

    Judging someone on the basis of one‟s perception of the group to which that

    persons belongs.
                                                                                       85
Perceptions & its applications
 Employment interview
 Performance evaluation
 Performance expectation
 Employee loyalty




                                 86
Kelley‟s Attribution theory
                                          Consistency
   Distictiveness        Consensus       Does this person
   Does this person    Do other person        behave
      behave in         Behave in the      in this same
     this manner        Same manner?      manner at other
  in other situation                          times ?




                                No               Yes
           YES                 Low               High        Internal
          Low                Consensus        Consistency   Attribution
     Distinctiveness
           NO                                    No
                                Yes              Low         External
          High                 High                          Attributi
     Distinctiveness                          Consistency        on
                             Consensus
                                                                    87
Motivation




             88
‹#›
Process
 Need
 Drive
 Goal
 Relief/incentives




                      90
Types
 Achievement
 Affiliation
 Competence
 Power
 Attitude




                91
Motivation factors
   Job security
   Sympathetic help with personal problems
   Personal loyalty to employees
   Interesting work
   Good working condition
   Tactful discipline
   Good wages
   Promotion & growth in the organisation
   Feelings of being in on things
   Full appreciation of work done.

                                              92
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

                   Self-Actualization



                   Self-Esteem Needs



                     Social Needs



                     Safety Needs



                  Physiological Needs



                                        93
Herzberg
 Herzberg proposed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory,
  also known as the Two factor theory (1959) of job
  satisfaction. According to his theory, people are
  influenced by two sets of factors:
Motivator Factors
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Work Itself
 Responsibility
 Promotion
 Growth

                                                      94
Hygiene Factors
 Pay and Benefits
 Company Policy and Administration
 Relationships with co-workers
 Supervision
 Status
 Job Security
 Working Conditions
 Personal life

                                      95
Porter & lawler model




                        96
McClelland theory of needs
The need for authority and power (n-pow)
 Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and
  control. They like to be at the center and are good orators. They are
  demanding in nature, forceful in manners and ambitious in life. They can be
  motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power positions.
The need for affiliation (n-affil)
 In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to
  affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and
  faith. They like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social
  recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation.
The need for achievement (n-ach)
 People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear
  of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and they set for
  themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature and take
  calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they see
  atleast some chances of success.




                                                                              97
‹#›
Application of motivational
concept
 Job enlargement – workers being given a
  greater variety of tasks to perform (not
  necessarily more challenging) which should make
  the work more interesting.
 Job enrichment - involves workers being given
  a wider range of more complex, interesting and
  challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of
  work. This should give a greater sense of
  achievement.
 Empowerment means delegating more power
  to employees to make their own decisions over
  areas of their working life
 Job rotation

                                                     99
Employee involvement programme
 Employee involvement teams
 Participative management
 Representative participation
 Quality circles
 Creating effective reward system in
  organization




                                        100
THE FOUNDATIONS OF
GROUP BEHAVIOR




                     101
‹#›
Defining and Classifying Groups

Group

  Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent,
  who have come together to achieve particular objectives.




                                                             103
Formal Groups
- A designated work group defined by the organization‟s structure.
- They are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the
   overall organizational mission:
   a. Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals
   b. Concentrates more on the performance of job
   c. People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly
   d. Co-ordination of members are controlled through process, procedures
   etc
 Command Group
    A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common manager
    e.g. a production manager & his subordinates in his department
   Task Group
    Those working together to completes a job task.




                                                                                          104
Informal Groups
  A group that is neither formally structured nor
   organizationally determined; appears in response to the
   need for social contract.
 Interest Group
     Those working together to complete a job task.
 Friendship Group
     Those brought together because they share one or more
      common characteristics.
    Reference group
    Membership group
    Cliques :permanent informal group




                                                              105
Stages of Group Development

The Five-Stage Group-Development Model

  The five distinct stages groups go through: forming,
   storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.




                                                          106
Stages of group development

Bruce Tuckman (1965) developed a 4-stage model of
group development. He labelled the stages, Dr Suess-
style:




                                                       107
‹#›
   Stage I: Forming
        The group comes together and gets to initially know one other and
         form as a group.
        The first stage in group development, characterized by much
         uncertainty about the group‟s purpose, structure, and leadership.



   Stage II: Storming
        The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup
         conflict.

   Stage III: Norming
        Eventually agreement is reached on how the group operates
         (norming)
        The third stage in group development, characterized by close
         relationships and cohesiveness.



                                                                              109
 Stage IV: Performing
      The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully
       functional.
Tuckman added a 5th stage 10 years later:

   Stage V: Adjourning
        The fifth stage in group development for temporary groups,
         characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task
         performance.




                                                                                 110
Group structure
Includes
- Leadership
 - Roles
1. Role identity
2. Role perception
3. Role expectations
4. Role conflict



                       111
Role

  A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
   someone occupying a given position in a special unit.




                                                           112
   Role Identity
      Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role.

   Role Perception
      An individual‟s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a
       given situation.

   Role Expectations
      How others believe a person should act in a given situation.

   Role Conflict
      A situation in which an individual is confront by divergent
       role expectations.

                                                                       113
    Norms
     Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are
     shared by the group‟s members.
-    Types
1.    Performance – related processes: how
      hard they should work, how to get the
      job done, their output level.
2.    Appearance factors: formal dress code
3.    Allocation of resources: pay, assignment
      of difficult jobs.
                                                            114
Status

      A socially defined position or rank given to groups or
       group members by others.

  Formal status:
- Formally imposed by org through position & titles
- High pay
 Informal status
- Education, age, gender, skill & experience

                                                                115
Size

  Size – 3-13 depending on objective
  3-5 for high decision making
  Smaller groups are effective
  Large grp member have better chance of finding people they like to
   work with.
  As grp increases satisfaction goes down




                                                                        116
Group Decision Making




                        117
Techniques
 Brainstorming
 Nominal
 Delphi
 Electronic meetings
 Devil‟s Advocacy
 Quality circles




                        118
Obstacles to group productivity
       Breakdown in role development
a.       Role ambiguity
b.       Role conflict: person role conflict, intra-role , inter role
c.       Role overload
        Groupthink: deterioration(declining) of mental efficiency,
         moral judgment resulting from in-group pressures.
-        This hinders decision –making & becomes an obstacles to
         group productivity
        Social loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend
         (spend) less effort when working collectively than when
         working individually
-        Identifiable individual contributions to the group product
-        Member self evaluation system



                                                                        119
   Production blocking: limiting persons
    output
-   Occurs when too many employees are
    trying to work in a given amount of
    space
-   when the organization has poorly
    planned the use of its facilities.
-   Organization assigns more no. of
    employees to one task
                                            120
What managers should do to minimize
groupthink?
  Monitor group size.
  Managers should encourage group leaders to play an
   impartial role.
  Appoint one group member to play the role of devil‟s
   advocate.
  Use exercises that stimulate active discussion of
   diverse alternatives without threatening the group.



                                                          121
Work teams

 Differentiation:
- It is the extent to which team members
  are specialized relative to others in the
  organization.
 Integration:
- It is the degree to which the team must
  co-ordinate with managers, employees,
  suppliers & customers outside the team.
                                              122
Types of teams
 Problem solving teams:
- 5-10 employees from same department
- Meet for few hrs each week to discuss ways of improving quality,
  efficiency , investigate causes of problem, & work environment.
- Share ideas / offer suggestions
 Self managed work teams:
- Includes collective control over the pace(speed) of work,
  determination of work assignments, choice of inspection
  procedures
- Select their own members & evaluate each others performance
- Teams do their own scheduling, rotate jobs on their own, establish
  production targets, set pay scales that are linked to skills, fire co-
  workers & do the hiring



                                                                           123
   Cross-functional teams:
-   Teams made up of employees from about
    the same hierarchical level but from
    different work areas, who come together
    to accomplish the task
-   Effective to exchange information, develop
    new ideas, solve problem, co-ordinate
    complex projects.
-   Takes time to build trust & teamwork
                                             124
Application of team work
 Advice/involvement
 Production/service
 Project/development
 Action/negotiation




                           125
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS




                       126
‹#›
Interpersonal Skills/
                      Facilitation Skills
                          language &
                          communication
listening
                                               using
                                              feedback


            questioning

                                      conflict handling




                                                          128
   IPS enables you to:
-   Work harmoniously & efficiently with
    others
-   Evaluate & accept responsibilities
-   Identify methods you use to respond to
    conflict
-   Work in teams more efficiently.


                                             129
Transactional analysis
 Transaction defined as unit of social
  intercourse/interaction is called as transaction
 2 / more people encounter each other sooner or
  later one of them will speak or acknowledge is
  called as transactional stimulus……. another
  person will say or do something which is in some
  way related to stimulus is called as transactional
  response.
 TA is the method for studying interactions between
  individuals



                                                   130
   It is a model of people & relationships that was developed during the
     1960s by Dr.Eric Berne.
    Identification of ego-states behind each and every transaction
    This was based on notions:
1.     We have three parts or ego-states to our „personality‟.(he called them
       parent, adult & child)
2.     Definition of Parent Ego State- a set of feelings, thinking, and behavior
       that we have copied from parents or guardians.

      Focuses on the individual but also one‟s relationship to others.
    A model for explaining why and how:
      People think like they do
      People act like they do
      People interact/communicate with others

                                                                                   131
 Transactional Analysis is a method of
  understanding people's behavior by analyzing
  the 'transactions' or interactions which
  transpire between people.
 It was developed in the 1950's using a
  framework based on Freud, though it
  deviated from his ideas in several areas.
 Transactional Analysis was a psychological
  research method that focused on social
  interactions and analysis of relationships of
  individuals.
                                              132
 TA is about relationship within the mind &
  purposes relationships of various kinds between
  individuals.
 Applied to organisations : in order to understand
  the human needs & behaviour & ways
  organisation is effective or ineffective in solving
  their problems.
 Equips the employee with skills in communication
  & problem solving.
 Helps in enhancing productivity by improving
  working climate, by developing more effective
  problem-solving strategies & management styles.
                                                    133
 Berne developed three ego states to explain
  how the human being is made up and how
  he relates to other people. These three ego
  states are Parent Ego State, Adult Ego State,
  and Child Ego State.
 The ideal ego state for Berne is the Adult
  Ego state, those who live in the adult ego
  state are able to direct responses.
 Those in the adult ego state are able to
  interact with the world in ways that are not
  influenced by our Parent Ego states or our
  Child Ego States.
                                                  134
‹#›
‹#›
Eric Berne and Transactional Analysis
Transactional Analysis
    People have three ego states: parent, adult, child
         Parent:
        - Nurturing parent is caring & concerned, offer unconditional love
        - Controlling tries to make the child do, as the parents want them to do.
         Child:
        - Natural child like playing & are open & vulnerable.
        - Little professor is the curious & exploring. Together with the natural
          child they make up free child.
        - Adaptive child reacts to the world arround them, either changing them
          to fit in or rebelling against the forces they feel.
        - thinking, feeling, behaving as one did as a child
         Adult: thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are a direct result of current
          happenings


                                                                                        137
The Three Ego States

Parent- “Do as I do”
Child- “What shall I do?”
Adult- “I will be frank with you”
 Biological conditions are irrelevant to these ego states.
 We shift from one ego state to another in transactions.

Parent- “Why don’t you prepare a time-table?”
Child- “What is the point when one cannot follow it?” –
  Becomes an Adult.




                                                              138
Transactional Analysis
Transactional analysis (TA): a method of understanding behavior in
interpersonal dynamics.
 The three ego states
    Parent
      Critical parent
      Sympathetic/nurturing parent
    Child
      Natural child (affectionate playful)
      Adapted child
    Adult
 The three types of transactions
    Complementary
    Crossed
    Ulterior

                                                                     139
 Life positions :
- Persons convictions about himself/herself:
I‟m ok/I‟m not OK
- Persons convictions about others
You are ok/you are not ok




                                           140
Life Positions
Attitude toward Oneself




                          Positive   I’m OK —                   I’m OK —
                                     You’re not OK              You’re OK

                          Negative   I’m not OK —               I’m not OK —
                                     You’re not OK              You’re OK


                                       Negative                   Positive

                                                  Attitude toward Others

                                                                               141
   Strokes :
-   Unit of recognition, when one person
    recognizes another person either verbally
    or non-verbally




                                            142
Game analysis
   I am sure that every one of us must have been in the situation
    where we have said, "Why does this always keep happening to me"
    or "I always keep meeting people who hurt me and then go off and
    leave me".
   Sometimes it may be that we like to help people and then it goes
    wrong as the person we were trying to help says that we didn't do
    it well enough and that we got it wrong. We might think "Well, I
    was only trying to help" and feel got at.
   When similar situations keep happening over and over again then
    the term Transactional Analysis uses for this is a game.
   A game is a familiar pattern of behaviour with a predictable
    outcome.




                                                                    143
Power & politics in the
organizational




                          144
Power & politics in the
                  organizational

◦ Power – the available force or potential for
  achieving desired outcomes
◦ Politics – is the use of power to influence decisions
  in order to achieve those outcomes




                                                          145
Interpersonal sources of Powers :
- Legitimate power
- Reward power
- Coercive power
- Expert power
- Information power
- Connection power




                                    146
Structural Sources of Power
   Uncertainty reduction:
-   Resource control: The departments, groups,
    or individuals who can provide essential or
    difficult-to-obtain resources acquire more
    power in the organization than others.
-   Information control: information have power
    because they can reduce uncertainty for
    others.
-   Decision-making control
   Substitutability : power of individual
   Centrality

                                              147
   Many organizational conditions encourage
    political activity
-   Unclear goals
-   Autocratic decision making
-   Scarce resources
-   Uncertainty




                                           148
   Legitimate political behavior
-   Complaining to your supervisor
-   Bypassing the chain of command
-   Obstructing organizational policies
-   Excessive adherence to rules




                                          149
   Illegitimate political behavior
-   Sabotage(damage)
-   Whistle –blowing
-   Group of employees simultaneously
    applying for casual leave.




                                        150
Maccoby‟s four political types
 The craftsman:
- Driven by achievement
- They are least political
- They are technical specialist
- Person is usually quiet, sincere, modest & practical.
 The jungle fighter:
- Active politicians
- Step on others to get ahead
- Believes to go ahead
- 2 types of JH:
Foxes: makes their own nest, play & plan safe
Lions :conquer others territories & build empires

                                                          151
   Company man/women:
-   conservative behavior
-   Does not exhibit political behaviour
-   Concern for humans
-   Involved with security than success & may
    miss opportunities that arise.
   The gamesman:
-   Suitable politicians
-   View business as a game
-   Grows when there is a competition &
    challenge
                                                152
Leadership
     Itis the ability of a manager to induce
      subordinates to work with confidence & zeal.
     Powers :
    - Legitimate power
    - Reward power
    - Coercive power
    - Expert power
    - Information power
    - Connection power


                                                     153
Importance
     Leaders provide task support
     Psychological support
     Development of individual
     Building the team spirit
     Motivation
     Provides feedback
     Facilitates change



                                     154
Qualities of a leader
       Intelligence
       Personality
       Maturity
       Vision & foresight
       Motivation
       Acceptance of responsibility
       Self confident
       Trustworthy & honest
       Risk-taker
       Knowledge of human skill


                                       155
Nature of leadership
 Performance
 Communication
 Influence
 Power base
 Interaction
 Acceptance




                       156
Styles . . .
       Autocratic leadership
       Positive & negative style of leadership
       Democratic
       Bureaucratic
       Situational
       Laissez-faire/free-rein
       Managerial grid style(Robert Blake &
        James mouton)

                                                  157
Leadership skills
   Human skill
-   Empathy
-   Objectivity
-   Communication skills
-   Teaching skill
-   Social skill
   Conceptual skills
-   Understand the organizational behavior
-   Understand the competitors of the firm
-   Knowing the financial status of the irm

                                              158
 Technical skills
 Personal skill
- Intelligence
- Emotional maturity
- Personal motivation
- Integrity
- Flexibility of mind



                        159
Theories of leadership
 Trait theory of leadership
 Behavioral theory of leadership
 Management grid/leadership grid
 Situational theory of leadership
 Path-goal theory
 Participation theory of leadership




                                       160
‹#›
Trait theory of leadership
Seeks to determine personal characteristics of effective leaders.

   Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition,
    energy and initiative
   Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to
    reach shared goals
   Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open
   Self-confidence: Belief in one‟s self, ideas, and ability
   Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong
    analytical abilities, and conceptually skilled
   Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other
    technical matters
   Emotional Maturity: well adjusted
   Others: creativity and flexibility

                                                                    162
-   Good personality
-   Intellectual ability
-   Initiative
-   Imagination
-   Maturity
-   Desire to respect responsibility
-   Self confidence
-   Flexibility
-   Fairness & objectivity
-   Considerate




                                       163
Limitations of The Trait Theory
 There is bound to be some judgment in
  determining who is regarded as a „good‟ or
  „successful‟ leader
 There is also a disagreement over which traits are
  the most important for an effective leader
 Assumes that leadership is an inborn quality
  which is not true.
 Leaders may prove successful in one situation due
  to some traits but unsuccessful in another
  situation.


                                                   164
Behavioral theory
 Behavioral theories of leadership are
  based upon the belief that great leaders
  are made, not born.
 this leadership theory focuses on the
  actions of leaders not on mental qualities
  or internal states.
 According to this theory, people can learn
  to become leaders through teaching and
  observation.
 Behavior of good leader motivates people.

                                           165
   Ohio state university studies
    -   Goal of research was
1.       Determine what affect these behavior had on employee
         satisfaction & performance.
2.       Identify the best leadership style
-        Questionnaire was developed (LBDQ)to assess leadership
         styles
-        After analysis 2 important leadership behaviours were
         drawn:
1.       Initiating -structure behavior: clearly define role of leader &
         follower, deciding how task to be performed
2.       Consideration -behavior: concern for follower & trying to
         establish a friendly & supportive work climate based on
         mutual trust.


                                                                       166
   Leader‟s High score IS-
-   high producing group & rated highly by
    superiors
-   Subordinate of those leader have low morale
    & higher grievances
   Leaders high on C
-   Led group with high morale low productivity
-   Further concluded that high on both IS & C
    highly satisfy their superior(by achieving high
    performance) & subordinates by improving
    their morale

                                                  167
   University of michigan studies
  - Under Rensis likert, researcher conducted interview with
    managers & employees who reported them.
  - Researcher concluded that 2 leadership styles influence
    employee performance & satisfaction.
1.   Task centered:
-    Pays close attention on work, deeply interested in
     performance
1.   Employee centered:
-    Emphasizes on employee well-being rather than task.
Conclusion:
EC leaders supervised groups with higher morale & productivity
TC leaders supervised groups with low morale & productivity
EC style is the superior style.

                                                             168
Path goal theory
  Path–goal model, is a leadership theory in the field of
   organizational studies developed by Robert House, an Ohio
   State University graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996
 the manager‟s job is viewed as guiding workers to choose the
   best paths to reach their goals, as well as the organizational
   goals.
 Provides coaching, guidance , support & rewards.
In particular, leaders:
 Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go.
 Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there.
 Increasing the rewards along the route.




                                                                169
Supportive leadership
 Considering the needs of the follower, showing concern
  for their welfare and creating a friendly working
  environment. This includes increasing the follower's self-
  esteem and making the job more interesting.
Directive leadership
 Telling followers what needs to be done and giving
  appropriate guidance along the way. This includes giving
  them schedules of specific work to be done at specific
  times. Rewards may also be increased as needed



                                                           170
Participative leadership
 Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into
  account when making decisions and taking particular
  actions. This approach is best when the followers are
  expert and their advice is both needed and they expect
  to be able to give it.
Achievement-oriented leadership
 Setting challenging goals, both in work and in self-
  improvement (and often together). High standards are
  demonstrated and expected. The leader shows faith in
  the capabilities of the follower to succeed. This
  approach is best when the task is complex.

                                                           171
Situational Theory:
 Situational theories propose that leaders choose
  the best course of action based upon situational
  variables.
 Different styles of leadership may be more
  appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
 There is no best style of leadership, leader has to
  change his style from situation to situation
 Recent research suggests that managers should
  diagnose the situation, select a leadership &
  implement it.

                                                        172
3 general factors that affect the appropriate leadership style.

   Subordinate considerations:
-   Reflect the leader‟s awareness of subordinates expertise, experiences, job
    knowledge etc.
   Supervisor considerations: Reflects the leader‟s degree of upward
    influence.
   Task considerations: reflects the degree of time urgency, amount of
    physical danger, permissible error




                                                                                 173
Fiedler‟s contingency theories
- Oldest & most controversial theory & also known as
   contingency /situational leadership
- In order to classify leadership styles he has developed a index
   called as least preferred coworker scale.
- Relationship motivated & task motivated.
- A high LPC score suggests that the leader has a human
   relations orientation, while a low LPC score indicates a
   task orientation.


                                                                    174
Participative Theories:
 Participative leadership theories suggest that
  the ideal leadership style is one that takes
  the input of others into account.
 These leaders encourage participation and
  contributions from group members and help
  group members feel more relevant and
  committed to the decision-making process.
 In participative theories, however, the leader
  retains the right to allow the input of others.

                                                175
Organizational change




                        176
Management of change
    Why change???
    - Increase efficiency
    - Competition
    - Trends
    - Market factors
    - Economic factors
    - Technological factors.



                               177
Forms of change
 Planned change:
- Deliberately done
- Goal oriented activity
- Goals are:
Seeks to increase ability of the organisation &
  its employee.
 Unplanned change:
- Change agent: individual/group that
  undertakes the task of introducing &
  managing a change in an organization is
  known as a change agent.

                                                  178
1. Internal change agents:
- Managers / employees who are appointed
   to oversee the change process.
Advantages are:
- They know the past history
- They are very careful because they must
   live with the results
Disadvantages:
- Easily accused of favouritism

                                            179
 External change agent:
- Such as outside consultant
- They bring an outsiders view to the organization.
Advantages:
- May be preferred by employee because of
  impartiality
- They have more power in directing changes, if
  employees perceive them trustworthy.
Disadvantages:
- Can face problem including their limited
  knowledge of the organizational history
                                                      180
   Resistance to change
   Individual
-   Insecurity
-   Social factors
-   Lack of knowledge about the change
-   Lack of faith in managers
-   Not aware of benefits of change
-   Peer pressure
   Organizational
-   Resource constraints
-   Sunk cost
-   Cost
-   Organizational commitment
-   Threat to expertise

                                         181
   Overcoming resistance to change
-   Education & communication
-   Participation & involvement
-   Support
-   Negotiation
-   Guarantee job security
-   Manipulation


                                      182
Steps in mgmt of change
     Perceive a situation for change
     Analyse the existing situation
     Prepare a plan for change
     Try the plan
     Overcome resistance to change
     Implement the change
     Review the change



                                        183
Organizational development




                             184
OD
   There is no single definition of "Organizational
    Development." If we were to break it into its parts
    we can discover one meaning: "Organization" has
    come to mean the coming together of people and
    resources to form a unit. "Development" in its
    simplest form suggests change and growth.
   So OD could be defined as "the practice of changing
    people and organizations for positive growth."




                                                      185
Organizational development (OD)
Definition
 Theory and practice of planned, systematic change in
  the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the employees
  through creation and reinforcement of long-term
  training programs. OD is action oriented.
 O. D. is a systemic and systematic change effort, using
  behavioural science knowledge and skill, to transform
  an orgn. to a new state.
 Its objective is to enable the organization in adopting-
  better to the fast-changing external environment of
  new markets, regulations, and technologies.



                                                         186
   Goals of OD
-   To improve the functioning of individuals,
    teams & the total organization
-   To teach organization members how to
    continuously improve their own
    functioning
-   Decision making on the basis of
    competence

                                                 187
Objectives
     OBJECTIVES OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
       PROGRAMME

     1.   To build and enhance interpersonal trust, communication, co-operation &
          support among all individuals & groups through the organization.

     2.   Individual and group development.

     3.   Sense of belonging of individuals to the organisation so that individual &
          organisational goals are synchronized

     4.   Development of organization culture and processes by constant
          interaction between members irrespective of levels of hierarchy.

     5.   Inculcating team spirit.

     6.   Empowerment of social side of employees.


                                                                                       188
6.    Focus of value development.

7.    Employee participation, problem-solving and decision-making
      at various levels.

8.    Evaluate present systems and introduction of new systems
      thereby achieving total system change if required.

9.    Transformation and achievement of competitive edge of the
      organization.

10.   Achieve organization growth by total human inputs by way of
      research and development, innovations, creativity and
      exploiting human talent.



                                                                  189
Basic assumptions




                    190
Implications:

1.For Individuals
    a)   Most individuals believe in their personal growth which can be attained in a
         supportive & challenging work situation.


    b)   Majority of the people are desirous of making greater contributions to the
         organizations they are serving.




                                                                                        191
This leads to adopt the following organization strategy for development:

    •    Ask questions to resolve doubts.
    •    Listen to superior‟s advice.
    •    Support employees
    •    Accept challenge.
    •    Leaders to encourage creativity and promote risk taking.
    •    Give additional responsibility to subordinates.
    •    Set high standards of quality.
    •    Empower employees.
    •    Initiate suitable reward system that should be compatible, if not more
         than the industry norms.




                                                                                  192
2. For Groups

   a) One of the most important factors in the organization is the „work group‟
      around whom the organization functions. This includes the peer group and the
      leader (boss)

   b) More people prefer to be part of the group because the group accepts them.

   c) Most people are capable of making higher contributions to the group‟s
      effectiveness.

   d) Most people interact co-operatively

   e) Satisfy social & emotional needs at work.




                                                                                     193
Following strategy is required to be adopted for group development based on the
    above assumptions:

a) Invest in training and development of the group. Money and time spent on this is
   an investment for the organization.

b) Leaders should also invest in development of skills and thus help create a
   position organizational climate.

c) Let the team flourish. Teams are the best approach to get the work done. Apart
   from the above teams enjoy emotional and job satisfaction when they work in
   groups.

d) Leaders should adopt team leadership style and not autocratic leadership style.
e) Jobs should be allotted to the team and not to the individual.




                                                                                      194
d)   It is not possible for one individual (leader) to perform both, the leadership
     and maintenance functions. It is therefore necessary for team members to
     assist leader in performance of his duties.

e)   Group should be trained in conflict management, stress management, group
     decision-making, collaboration, and effective interpersonal communication.
     This will improve organizational effectiveness.

f)   Leaders should pay particular attention to the feelings of the employees. It
     should be understood that suppressed feeling and attitudes adversely affect
     problem-solving, personal growth and job satisfaction.

g)   Development of group cohesiveness.




                                                                                      195
3. For Organizations

   a) Create learning organization culture.

   b) Adopt win-win strategy for sustained growth.

   c) Create cooperative dynamics rather than competitive organizational dynamics
      in the organization.

   d) Needs and aspirations of the employees in the organization must be met.

   e) This leads to greater participation of the employees.

   f) Organizations should adopt developmental outlook and seek opportunities in
      which people can experience personal and professional growth. Such
      orientation creates a self-fulfilling prophecy.

   g) Individuals goals are integrated with organizational goal.




                                                                                    196
f)   People must be treated with due respect and considered important.
     The credit of success must be given to the employees unconditioned.

g)   Promote organizational citizenship.




                                                                           197
Types of OD activities
   For individual:
-   Sensitivity training/T-groups: It is about making people understand
    about themselves and others reasonably, which is done by
    developing in them social sensitivity and behavioral flexibility.
-   An unstructured group of 10-15 people is formed.
-   Brought together in free environment, participant discuss freely
    aided by facilitator.
-   Facilitators creates an opportunity for members to express their
    ideas, beliefs & attitudes.
   For two/ three people:
-   Transaction analysis
-   It is act of communication or interaction between 2 people.
-   Concentrates on styles & content of communication between
    people.
-   Teaches people to send messages that are clear & responsible.


                                                                          198
Parent ("exteropsyche"):
 a state in which people behave, feel, and think in response to an
  unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other parental
  figures) acted, or how they interpreted their parent's actions.
Adult ("neopsyche)
Child ("archaeopsyche"):
- a state in which people behave, feel and think similarly to how they
  did in childhood.
- For example, a person who receives a poor evaluation at work may
  respond by looking at the floor, and crying or pouting, as they used
  to when scolded as a child.
- Conversely, a person who receives a good evaluation may respond
  with a broad smile and a joyful gesture of thanks. The Child is the
  source of emotions, creation, recreation, spontaneity and intimacy.
                                                                         199
 Personality consist of 3 ego states
- Ego state: Parent, adult & child
 Complementary transactions:
Reciprocal or Complementary transactions
 A simple, reciprocal transaction occurs when both partners are
  addressing the ego state the other is in. These are also called
  complementary transactions.
Example 1:
 A: "Have you been able to write the report?"
 B: "Yes - I'm about to email it to you.
Example 2:
 A: "Would you like to skip this meeting and go watch a film with
  me instead?"
 B: "I'd love to - I don't want to work anymore, what should we go
  and see?"


                                                                      200
Student: I don't understand what you are saying. Teacher: What exactly do you not understand?
The student's transaction is ulterior, while the teacher feels that she has explained things
clearly. The student may seem to be talking from their Adult Ego State, however, the
message is coming from their Negative Controlling Parent. The best way for the teacher to
respond is in a calm, assertive manner, keeping the idea of Adult Ego State, and hoping to
return the transaction to complementary.




                                                                                            201
   Thus Parental figures are often either more nurturing
    (permission-giving, security-giving) or more criticizing
    (comparing to family traditions and ideals in generally negative
    ways);




                                                                       202
Crossed transactions
 Communication failures are typically caused by a 'crossed transaction'
  where partners address ego states other than that their partner is in.

Example 1:
 A: "Have you been able to write that report?"
 B: "Will you stop hassling me? I'll do it eventually!"
This is a crossed transaction likely to produce problems in the workplace.
For instance:

Example 2:
 A: "Is your room tidy yet?"
 B: "I'm just going to do it, actually."
 This is a more positive crossed transaction. There is however the risk that
   A will feel aggrieved that B is acting responsibly and not playing their role,
   and the conversation will develop into:


                                                                                203
Duplex or Covert or ulterior transactions
 Student: I don't understand what you are saying. Teacher: What exactly do you
  not understand? The student's transaction is ulterior, while the teacher feels
  that she has explained things clearly. The student may seem to be talking
  from their Adult Ego State, however, the message is coming from their
  Negative Controlling Parent.
 The best way for the teacher to respond is in a calm, assertive manner,
  keeping the idea of Adult Ego State, and hoping to return the transaction
  to complementary
For instance:
 A: "I need you to stay late at the office with me." (Adult words), body
  language indicates bad intention (flirtatious Child) B: "Of course." (Adult
  response to Adult statement), winking or grinning (Child accepts the
  hidden motive).

                                                                                   204
Transactional Analysis
   Game analysis – understanding transactions
    that lead to bad feelings
   Script analysis – understand a person‟s life
    plan
    Script analysis: detailing of specific life drama
-   Pay-off/curse
-   Stoppers: unfair negative comments
-   Counter scripts: messages are in form of
    slogan.
-   Programme: it is what parent teaches to
    child

                                                        205
 For teams/groups:
- Teams, work teams, problem-solving
  teams, virtual teams, team building.
 For intergroup relations:
- Seeks to change attitude, perceptions that
  group have of each other
 For total organization



                                           206
OD interventions & techniques
- They are sets of structured activities in which
    selected organizational units (target group
    or individuals) engage in a task or a
    sequence

1.   Sensitivity training/laboratory training/T-
     groups/encounter group
2.   Survey feedback
3.   Process consultation
4.   Team building
5.   Inter-group development

                                                   207
 Evaluating the effectiveness of OD
 The Future & OD




                                       208
Organizational culture




                         209
Organizational culture
   Schein -It has also been defined as "the
    specific collection of values and norms
    that are shared by people and groups in
    an organization and that control the way
    they interact with each other and with
    stakeholders outside the organization.




                                               210
Elements of culture

     Schein's model of organizational culture
    originated in the 1980s. Schein (2004)
    identifies three distinct levels in organizational
    cultures

 Artifacts
 Espoused values
 Basic assumptions
                                                         211
   Artifacts:
-   It include any tangible or verbally identifiable elements in an organization.
-   Architecture, furniture, dress code, office jokes, and history all exemplify
    organizational artifacts.
-    Artifacts are the visible elements in a culture and they can be recognized by
    people not part of the culture.
   Espoused values:
-   EV are the organization's stated or desired cultural elements.
-   This is most often a written or stated tone that the CEO or President hope to
    exude throughout the office environment.
-   Examples of this would be employee professionalism, or a "family first" mantra.
-   Trouble may arise if espoused values by leaders are not in line with the general
    assumptions of the culture.
   Assumptions :
-   They are the actual values that the culture represents, not necessarily correlated
    to the values.
-   It's a true reflection of the culture.
-   These assumptions are typically so well integrated in the office dynamic that they
    are hard to recognize from within


                                                                                         212
Creating & sustaining culture
A. How organizational culture begins:
- A single person has an idea for a new
    enterprise.
- Founder‟s creation of core group
- Indoctrinate socialize
- Build a common history
B. Sustaining a culture:
- Selection
- Top management
- Socialization: pri-arrival stage, encounter
    stage, metamorphosis stage.
                                                213
214
How employees learn culture?
 Stories
 Rituals & ceremonies
 Materials/cultural symbols
 Organisational heroes
 Language




                               215
How environment effects managers
 Degree of environmental uncertainty:
- Degree of change:
 Through various stakeholders
  relationship:
- Stockholders
- Employees
- Suppliers
- Competitors

                                         216
Conflict management




                      217
 Conflict is “an
--expressed struggle
--between at least two interdependent
  parties
--who perceive incompatible goals, scare
  resources, and
--interference from others in achieving
  their goals”
 Conflicts exist whenever incompatible
  activities occur.

                                           218
   Conflict management involves implementing strategies to limit the
    negative aspects of conflict and to increase the positive aspects of conflict
    at a level equal to or higher than where the conflict is taking place.
   Furthermore, the aim of conflict management is to enhance learning and
    group outcomes (effectiveness or performance in organizational setting)
   It is not concerned with eliminating all conflict or avoiding conflict.
   Conflict can be valuable to groups and organizations. It has been shown to
    increase group outcomes when managed properly




                                                                                    219
   Conflicts may originate from a number of different
    sources, including:
       Differences in information, beliefs, values, interests,
        or desires.
       A scarcity of some resource.
       Rivalries in which one person or group competes
        with another.




                                                                  220
 Conflict is the result of a situation
  wherein the needs or ideas of one person
  are at odds or in opposition to the needs
  or ideas of another.
 Conflict is an expressed struggle between
  at least two interdependent parties who
  perceives incompatible goals, scarce
  rewards and interference


                                          221
   Conflict is a problem when it:
    1. Hampers productivity.
    2. Lowers morale.
    3. Causes more and continued conflicts.
    4. Causes inappropriate behaviors.




                                              222
Outcomes of conflict
 Functional conflict
 Dysfunctional conflict
Sources of OC:
- Line & staff competition
- Organization-individual disagreement
- Overlapping responsibilities
- Functional interdependence
- Personality clashes
- Disagreement over goals
- Bottlenecks in the flow of work




                                         223
224
Levels of conflict or forms of
conflict
 Intra-individual or intrapersonal conflict:
- Cognitive conflict
- Affective conflict
 Inter-individual conflict
 Individual-group
 Inter-group conflict
 Organizational level



                                                225
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT:
   Five conflict management modes/strategies

Withdrawal/Avoidance.
Smoothing/Accomodating.
Compromising
Forcing/Competing.
Problem solving/collaboration



                                                226
CONFLICT APPROACHES:

Competing/forcing.

        Attempt to win with presumption that
         others will lose
        The issue is trivial and others don‟t really
         care what happens.
        You‟re sure you‟re right, and being right
         matters more than preserving
         relationships.
        Low on assertiveness & cooperativeness
                                                        227
 Accommodating
- Attempts to satisfy another person‟s
  objectives.
- It is cooperative but unassertive
 Avoiding
- Low on both Assertiveness &
  cooperativeness
- Stay out of a conflict situation


                                         228
COLLABORATING:
   Co-operation is important.
   Seeks to make everyone winner
   Discussion & arrive to satisfactory solution
   It is a win-win style
   High on both assertiveness & cooperativeness




                                                   229
 Collaborating: win/win
 Compromising: win some/lose some
 Accommodating: lose/win
 Competing: win/lose
 Avoiding: no winners/no losers




                                     230
Stress
 Stress is the body's reaction to a change that requires a
  physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response.
 Stress can come from any situation or thought that
  makes you feel frustrated, angry, nervous, or anxious.
 Stress is caused by an existing stress-causing factor or
  "stressor.“ (The situations and pressures that cause
  stress are known as stressors).
 Dealing with a serious illness or caring for someone
  who is can cause a great deal of stress.




                                                              231
Physical Stressors
 Excess/to little exercise
 Poor diet
 Drug misuse
 Alcohol misuse
 Excess heat
 Excess caffeine
 Excess cold
 Illness
 Smoking
 Lack of relaxation


                              232
Environmental Stressors
 Pollution
 Excess noise
 Poor housing
 Traffic jams




                          233
Psychological Stressors

   Excess anger
   Unrealistic beliefs
   Health worries
   Unrealistic expectations
   Excessive worrying
   Unhappy childhood
   Unemployment
   Financial problems
   Lonelines

                               234
‹#›
General Adoption Syndrome(GAS)
 General adaptation syndrome, or GAS, is
  a term used to describe the body's short-
  term and long-term reactions to stress.
 Stressors in humans include such physical
  stressors as starvation, being hit by a car.
 Originally described by Hans Selye (1907–
  1982), an Austrian-born physician who
  emigrated to Canada in 1939, the general
  adaptation syndrome represents a three-
  stage reaction to stress.
                                             236
237
Stage 1: alarm reaction (ar)
 The first stage of the general adaptation
  stage, the alarm reaction, is the immediate
  reaction to a stressor.
 In the initial phase of stress, humans exhibit
  a "fight or flight" response, which prepares
  the body for physical activity.
 This initial response can also decrease the
  effectiveness of the immune system, making
  persons more susceptible to illness during
  this phase.

                                                   238
Stage 2: stage of resistance (sr)
 Stage 2 might also be named the stage of
  adaptation, instead of the stage of
  resistance.
 During this phase, if the stress continues,
  the body adapts to the stressors it is
  exposed to.
 Changes at many levels take place in
  order to reduce the effect of the stressor.
                                            239
Stage 3: stage of exhaustion (se)
 At this stage, the stress has continued for some time.
 The body's resistance to the stress may gradually be
  reduced, or may collapse quickly.
 Generally, this means the immune system, and the
  body's ability to resist disease, may be almost totally
  eliminated.
 Patients who experience long-term stress may
  succumb to heart attacks or severe infection due to
  their reduced immunity.
 For example, a person with a stressful job may
  experience long-term stress that might lead to high
  blood pressure and an eventual heart attack.

                                                        240
Approaches to stress
   The homeostatic /medical approach:
-   Walter canon medical psychologist who discovered
    stress & called it “the emergency response” or the
    militaristic response”
-   According to him stress results when environmental
    demand upset the person‟s natural balance referred to
    as homeostasis.
-   He called stress response as fight/flight response
-   He believed the body was designed with natural defense
    mechanisms.



                                                         241
   Cognitive Appraisal approach: (Richard Lazarus (1977)
-   Stress evoked by an event depends on how people interpret the event &
    what they can do about it.
-   He saw stress as a result of a person-environment interaction.
-   What is stressful for one person may not be stressful for another.
   Person-environment fit approach:(Robert Kahn)
- How confusing & conflicting expectations of a person in a social role create
   stress for a person.
- Stress occurs when role expectations are confusing & conflicting or when
    person‟s skills & abilities are not able to meet the demand of the social
    role
   Psychoanalytic approach: Harry Levenson believes that two elements of
    the personality interact to cause stress:
-   Ego ideal
-   Self image

                                                                                 242
Causes of stress
  Internal stimuli for stress:
- Inner conflicts
- Perceptual influences
- Thresholds of stress
- Motivational level
 Environmental stressors
Task demand:
- Are related to person’s job
- Includes individual’s job, working conditions & the physical work layout.
- Changes & lack of control are 2 stressful demands people face at work.
Role demand:
1.    Inter-role conflict: conflicting expectations between 2 separate roles
2.    Intra-role conflict: conflicting expectations between single role
3.    Person-role conflict: violating ethics, values, beliefs or principles.
                                                                               243
Inter-personal demands:
- Pressures created by other employees.
- Lack of social support from colleagues & poor interpersonal
   relations can cause stress.
1.    The abrasive person: may be an able & talented employee, but
      one who creates emotional waves.
2.    Sexual harassment
3.    Leadership styles




                                                                     244
Individual response to stress
   Life events
   Type A behavior pattern:
-   Behavior pattern is of complex of personality
-   Includes competitiveness
-   They set a high standards, push themselves to achieve & worry
    about time pressures
-   They try to get more & more in less & less time.
-   Managers should assign Type A person‟s to difficult projects.
   Type B behavior pattern:
-   Never suffer from time urgency
-   Feel no need to display & discuss their achievement
-   Ability to relax without guilt.


                                                                    245
 Negative affectivity: people tend to focus on negative
  side
- They perceive them under stress & poor health.
 Self-reliance(Reliance on one's own capabilities,
  judgment, or resources; independence)
- Counter dependence:
• it is unhealthy, leads to separation in relationship,
  counter dependent people exhibit a fearless, aggressive
  & actively powerful response to challenges.
- Over dependence




                                                            246
Managing stress
   Individual level
-   Time management
-   physical exercise
-   Relaxation & biofeedback
-   Development of social support
-   Adjustment of perception
-   Leisure time activities
-   Diet

                                    247
   Organizational level
-   Job redesigning: give more responsibility, More
    meaningful work, Increased feedback reduce stress as
    have greater control on work activities.
-   Goal setting: reducing degree of role-conflict
-   Organizational communication
-   Employee wellness programme
-   Social support system at the work place




                                                           248
Crisis Management
 Three elements are common to most definitions of crisis: (a) a threat to
  the organization, (b) the element of surprise, and (c) a short decision time.
 Crisis management is the nature of activities to respond to a major threat
  to a person, group or organization.
 Crisis management is a relatively new field of management.
 Typically, proactive crisis management activities include forecasting
  potential crises and planning how to deal with them
Crisis management involves:
 Identifying potential crisis
 Develop policies to minimize crisis situations
 Develop crisis management teams
 Crisis communication planning



                                                                                  249
‹#›
251

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Organisational Behaviour

  • 2. CONTENT Sr.no Chapters Pg no 1. Organizational Behavior 4-11 2. Foundations of Individual Behavior 12-30 3. Value,Attitudes & Job Satisfaction 31-42 4. Personality & Emotions 43-73 5. Perception 74-87 6. Motivation 88-100 7. Foundations of Group Behavior 101-125 2
  • 3. Sr.no Chapters 8. Interpersonal Skills 126-143 9. Power & Politics in Organization 144-152 10. Leadership 153-175 11. Organizational change & Development 176-208 12. Organizational Culture 209-216 13. Conflict Management 217-250 3
  • 4. WHAT IS OB?? The multidisciplinary field that seeks knowledge of behavior, attitudes, & motivation in organizational settings by systematically studying individual, group, and organizational processes 4
  • 5. Characteristics of the Field of OB  OB applies the scientific method to practical managerial problems  OB focuses on three levels of analysis: individuals, groups, and organizations  OB is multidisciplinary in nature  OB seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and the quality of life at work  OB is more than common sense 5
  • 6. Meaning & nature of management  Management is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively.  Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal.  Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural resources. 6
  • 7. Functions of managers  Planning  Organizing  Staffing  Directing  Controlling 7
  • 8. Level & skills of management  Top level-Conceptual skills  Middle level-Human skills  Low level- Technical 8
  • 9. Managerial roles….  Interpersonal - Figurehead - Leader - Liaison  Informational - Monitor - Disseminator - Spokesperson  Decisional - Entrepreneur - Disturbance handler - Resource allocator - Negotiator 9
  • 10. Contributing discipline to OB  Psychology  Social psychology  Anthropology  Sociology  Political science  Engineering 10
  • 11. Challenges of OB  Increasing number of global organizations  Utilizing IT & E-commerce  Building a competitive advantage  Maintaining a diverse workforce 11
  • 13. Biographical Characteristics  Biographical Characteristics - Age - Gender - Marital status - Length of service with an organization 13
  • 14. Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence Ability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Intellectual Ability The capacity to do mental activities. Multiple Intelligences Intelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural. 2– 14
  • 15. Dimensions of Intellectual Ability • Number aptitude • Verbal comprehension • Perceptual speed • Inductive reasoning • Deductive reasoning • Spatial visualization • Memory 15
  • 16. Physical Abilities Physical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics. 2– 16
  • 17. Nine Physical Abilities Strength Factors 1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility Other Factors 7. Body coordination Source: Adapted from 8. Balance HRMagazine published by the Society for Human Resource Management, 9. Stamina Alexandria, VA. 2– 17
  • 18. The Ability-Job Fit Ability-Job Employee‟s Fit Job‟s Ability Abilities Requirements 2– 18
  • 19. Learning Learning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Learning • Involves change • Is relatively permanent • Is acquired through experience 2– 19
  • 20. Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Key Concepts • Unconditioned stimulus • Unconditioned response • Conditioned stimulus • Conditioned response 2– 20
  • 21. Source: The Far Side ® by Gary Larson © 1993 Far Works, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission. E X H I B IT 2–3 2– 21
  • 22. Theories of Learning (cont‟d) Operant Conditioning A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Key Concepts • Reflexive (unlearned) behavior • Conditioned (learned) behavior • Reinforcement 2– 22
  • 23. Theories of Learning (cont‟d) Social-Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience. Key Concepts • Attentional processes • Retention processes • Motor reproduction processes • Reinforcement processes 2– 23
  • 24. Theories of Learning (cont‟d) Shaping Behavior Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Key Concepts • Reinforcement is required to change behavior. • Some rewards are more effective than others. • The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence. 2– 24
  • 25. Types of Reinforcement  Positive reinforcement ◦ Providing a reward for a desired behavior.  Negative reinforcement ◦ Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.  Punishment ◦ Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.  Extinction ◦ Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation. 2– 25
  • 26. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated. Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated. 2– 26
  • 27. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont‟d) Fixed-Interval Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. Variable-Interval Schedule Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses. 2– 27
  • 28. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont‟d) Fixed-ratio E X H I B IT 2–4 2– 28
  • 29. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement E X H I B IT 2–5 2– 29
  • 30. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont‟d) E X H I B I T 2– 5 (cont‟d) 2– 30
  • 31. Values, Attitude & Job Satisfaction 31
  • 32. Values Values represent basic convictions that- A specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Value is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable. 32
  • 33. Importance of Values 1 2 3 Values lay the Individuals enter foundation for the organizations with understanding of notions of what is Values generally attitudes and right and wrong influence motivation because with which they attitudes and they influence our interpret behaviors behavior. perceptions. or outcomes 33
  • 34. Types of Values Rokeach Value Survey… VALUES Terminal Instrumenta Values l Values 34
  • 35. Terminal Values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. 35
  • 36. Instrumental Values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values. 36
  • 37. Attitude Attitude is defined as “a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object.” That is, attitudes affect behavior at a different level than do values… 37
  • 38. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES Cognitive component of an attitude ◦ The opinion or belief segment of an attitude Affective component of an attitude • The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude Behavioral component of an attitude • An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something 38
  • 39. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction essentially reflects the extent to which an individual likes his or her job. Formally defined, job satisfaction is an affective or emotional response toward various facets of one’s job… 39
  • 40. Causes of Job Satisfaction Discrepancies B Need A C Value Fulfillment Attainment Causes Dispositional/ E D Equity Genetic Components 40
  • 41. Factors contributing Job Satisfaction - Mentally challenging work - Personality job-fit - Equitable rewards - Supportive working conditions - Supportive colleagues - Whistle blowing - Social responsibility 41
  • 42. Types of Managerial ethics - Immoral management - Moral management - Amoral management - Intentional - Unintentional 42
  • 44. What is Personality? When we talk of personality, we don‟t mean that a person has charm, a positive attitude toward life, a smiling face, or is a finalist for “ Happiest and Friendliest” in this year‟s Miss America contest. When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person‟s whole psychological system. Rather than looking at parts of the person, personality looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. 4–44
  • 46. What is Personality ?  The specific qualities, attributes, traits, factors, and mannerisms that distinguish one individual from other individuals is known as personality.  In other words, "those inner psychological characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person responds to his or he environment. 46
  • 47. Personality Determinants • Heredity • Environment • Situation Heredity: refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical structure, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, energy level etc. Environment: Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends and social groups etc. Situation: A third, the situation, influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individual‟s generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. 4–47
  • 48.  Brain  Biofeedback  Physical features  Family factors  Social factors  Situational factors 48
  • 49. Personality Traits Sixteen Primary Traits 4–49
  • 50. Personality and Consumer Behavior Nature of Personality  Three distinct properties of central importance are as follows:- Personality reflects individual differences.  For e.g.: high in venture, low in venture Personality is consistent and enduring .  For e.g.: newly available brands may cause change Personality can change.  For e.g.: marriage, birth of a child, change in job 50
  • 51. Theories of Personality  Freudian theory ◦ Unconscious needs or drives are at the heart of human motivation  Neo-Freudian personality theory ◦ Social relationships are fundamental to the formation and development of personality  Trait theory ◦ Quantitative approach to personality as a set of psychological traits 51
  • 52. Freudian Theory  Id ◦ Warehouse of primitive or instinctual needs for which individual seeks immediate satisfaction  Superego ◦ Individual‟s internal expression of society‟s moral and ethical codes of conduct  Ego ◦ Individual‟s conscious control that balances the demands of the id and superego 52
  • 53. Neo-Freudian /Social Cultural Theory ◦ Sensing-thinking ◦ Sensing Feeling ◦ Intuiting-thinking ◦ Intuiting-Feeling 53
  • 54. Trait Theory  Personality theory with a focus on psychological characteristics  Trait - any distinguishing, relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another  Personality is linked to how consumers make their choices or to consumption of a broad product category - not a specific brand 54
  • 55. Role of Personality in understanding Consumer Diversity ◦ Optimal Stimulation Level ◦ Need for Cognition ◦ Dogmatism ◦ Susceptibility to the Influence ◦ Self-Monitoring Behavior  Emotion ◦ Major Dimensions are PAD(Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance) 55
  • 56. Trait Theory  Innovativeness  The degree to which  Dogmatism consumers are  Social character receptive to new products, new services,  Need for uniqueness or new practices  Optimum stimulation level  Variety-novelty seeking 56
  • 57. Trait Theory  Innovativeness  A personality trait that  Dogmatism reflects the degree of  Social character rigidity a person displays toward the unfamiliar and  Need for uniqueness toward information that is  Optimum stimulation contrary to his or her level own established beliefs  Variety-novelty seeking 57
  • 58. Trait Theory  Innovativeness  Ranges on a continuum for  Dogmatism inner-directedness to other- directedness  Social character  Inner-directedness  Need for uniqueness ◦ rely on own values when  Optimum stimulation level evaluating products  Variety-novelty seeking ◦ Innovators  Other-directedness ◦ look to others ◦ less likely to be innovators 58
  • 59. Trait Theory  Innovativeness  Consumers who avoid  Dogmatism appearing to conform  Social character to expectations or standards of others  Need for uniqueness  Optimum stimulation level  Variety-novelty seeking 59
  • 60. Trait Theory  Innovativeness  A personality trait that  Dogmatism measures the level or amount of novelty or complexity that  Social character individuals seek in their  Need for uniqueness personal experiences  Optimum stimulation level  High OSL consumers tend to  Variety-novelty seeking accept risky and novel products more readily than low OSL consumers. 60
  • 61. Trait Theory  Innovativeness  Measures a consumer‟s  Dogmatism degree of variety seeking  Social character  Examples include:  Need for uniqueness ◦ Exploratory Purchase Behavior  Optimum stimulation ◦ Use Innovativeness level ◦ Vicarious Exploration  Variety-novelty seeking 61
  • 63. Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB  Locus of control  Machiavellianism  Self-esteem  Self-monitoring  Propensity for risk taking  Type A personality 4–63
  • 65. Machiavellianism Conditions Favoring High Machs • Direct interaction • Minimal rules and regulations • Distracting emotions 4–65
  • 67. Risk-Taking  High Risk-taking Managers ◦ Make quicker decisions. ◦ Use less information to make decisions. ◦ Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations.  Low Risk-taking Managers ◦ Are slower to make decisions. ◦ Require more information before making decisions. ◦ Exist in larger organizations with stable environments.  Risk Propensity ◦ Aligning managers‟ risk-taking propensity to job requirements should be beneficial to organizations. 4–67
  • 70. Achieving Personality-Job Fit Personality Types • Realistic • Investigative • Social • Conventional • Enterprising • Artistic 4–70
  • 71. Relationships among Occupational Personality Types 4–71
  • 72. Emotions- Why Emotions Were Ignored in OB  The “myth of rationality” ◦ Organizations are not emotion-free.  Emotions of any kind are disruptive to organizations. ◦ Original OB focus was solely on the effects of strong negative emotions that interfered with individual and organizational efficiency. 4–72
  • 73. What Are Emotions? Affect A broad range of emotions that people experience. Emotions Moods Intense feelings that are Feelings that tend to be directed at someone or less intense than emotions something. and that lack a contextual stimulus. 4–73
  • 75. “ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.” 75
  • 76. Perception “ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process through which we interpret and organize sensory information to produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.” “ Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge. “ A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. 76
  • 78. The Perceptual Process 1. Sensation 3. Organization ◦ An individual‟s ability to ◦ The process of placing detect stimuli in the selected perceptual immediate environment. stimuli into a framework 2. Selection for “storage.” ◦ The process a person 4. Translation uses to eliminate some ◦ The stage of the of the stimuli that have perceptual process at been sensed and to which stimuli are retain others for further interpreted and given processing. meaning. 78
  • 80.  Constancy  Motion perception  Form perception  Geometrical illusions 80
  • 81. Factors influencing perception  In the perceiver  In the object/target being perceived  In the context of the situation in which the perception is made. Characteristics of the perceiver: 1. Attitudes 2. Moods 3. Motives 4. Self-concept 5. Interest 6. Expectations 81
  • 82. Characteristics of the target: - Physical appearance - Verbal communication - Non-verbal communication  Characteristics of the situation: 82
  • 83. Factors influencing Perception Factors in the perceiver • Attitudes • Motives • Interests • Experience • Expectations Factors in the situation Perception • Time • Work Setting • Social Setting Factors in the Target • Motion • Sounds • Size • Background • Proximity • Similarity 83
  • 84. Shortcuts in judging others/barriers to perception  Selective Perception : People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience and attitudes.  Halo Effect : Drawing a general impressions about an individual on the basis of a single characteristics. 84
  • 85. Contrast Effect : Evaluation of a person‟s characteristics that are effected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.  First-impression error  Projection : Attributing one's own characteristics to other people.  Stereotyping : Judging someone on the basis of one‟s perception of the group to which that persons belongs. 85
  • 86. Perceptions & its applications  Employment interview  Performance evaluation  Performance expectation  Employee loyalty 86
  • 87. Kelley‟s Attribution theory Consistency Distictiveness Consensus Does this person Does this person Do other person behave behave in Behave in the in this same this manner Same manner? manner at other in other situation times ? No Yes YES Low High Internal Low Consensus Consistency Attribution Distinctiveness NO No Yes Low External High High Attributi Distinctiveness Consistency on Consensus 87
  • 90. Process  Need  Drive  Goal  Relief/incentives 90
  • 91. Types  Achievement  Affiliation  Competence  Power  Attitude 91
  • 92. Motivation factors  Job security  Sympathetic help with personal problems  Personal loyalty to employees  Interesting work  Good working condition  Tactful discipline  Good wages  Promotion & growth in the organisation  Feelings of being in on things  Full appreciation of work done. 92
  • 93. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Self-Actualization Self-Esteem Needs Social Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs 93
  • 94. Herzberg  Herzberg proposed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, also known as the Two factor theory (1959) of job satisfaction. According to his theory, people are influenced by two sets of factors: Motivator Factors  Achievement  Recognition  Work Itself  Responsibility  Promotion  Growth 94
  • 95. Hygiene Factors  Pay and Benefits  Company Policy and Administration  Relationships with co-workers  Supervision  Status  Job Security  Working Conditions  Personal life 95
  • 96. Porter & lawler model 96
  • 97. McClelland theory of needs The need for authority and power (n-pow)  Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They like to be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power positions. The need for affiliation (n-affil)  In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation. The need for achievement (n-ach)  People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they see atleast some chances of success. 97
  • 99. Application of motivational concept  Job enlargement – workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform (not necessarily more challenging) which should make the work more interesting.  Job enrichment - involves workers being given a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense of achievement.  Empowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over areas of their working life  Job rotation 99
  • 100. Employee involvement programme  Employee involvement teams  Participative management  Representative participation  Quality circles  Creating effective reward system in organization 100
  • 101. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR 101
  • 103. Defining and Classifying Groups Group Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. 103
  • 104. Formal Groups - A designated work group defined by the organization‟s structure. - They are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall organizational mission: a. Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals b. Concentrates more on the performance of job c. People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly d. Co-ordination of members are controlled through process, procedures etc  Command Group A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common manager e.g. a production manager & his subordinates in his department  Task Group Those working together to completes a job task. 104
  • 105. Informal Groups  A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; appears in response to the need for social contract. Interest Group  Those working together to complete a job task. Friendship Group  Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics. Reference group Membership group Cliques :permanent informal group 105
  • 106. Stages of Group Development The Five-Stage Group-Development Model  The five distinct stages groups go through: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. 106
  • 107. Stages of group development Bruce Tuckman (1965) developed a 4-stage model of group development. He labelled the stages, Dr Suess- style: 107
  • 109. Stage I: Forming  The group comes together and gets to initially know one other and form as a group.  The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty about the group‟s purpose, structure, and leadership.  Stage II: Storming  The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict.  Stage III: Norming  Eventually agreement is reached on how the group operates (norming)  The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness. 109
  • 110.  Stage IV: Performing  The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. Tuckman added a 5th stage 10 years later:  Stage V: Adjourning  The fifth stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. 110
  • 111. Group structure Includes - Leadership - Roles 1. Role identity 2. Role perception 3. Role expectations 4. Role conflict 111
  • 112. Role  A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a special unit. 112
  • 113. Role Identity  Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role.  Role Perception  An individual‟s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.  Role Expectations  How others believe a person should act in a given situation.  Role Conflict  A situation in which an individual is confront by divergent role expectations. 113
  • 114. Norms Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group‟s members. - Types 1. Performance – related processes: how hard they should work, how to get the job done, their output level. 2. Appearance factors: formal dress code 3. Allocation of resources: pay, assignment of difficult jobs. 114
  • 115. Status  A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.  Formal status: - Formally imposed by org through position & titles - High pay  Informal status - Education, age, gender, skill & experience 115
  • 116. Size  Size – 3-13 depending on objective  3-5 for high decision making  Smaller groups are effective  Large grp member have better chance of finding people they like to work with.  As grp increases satisfaction goes down 116
  • 118. Techniques  Brainstorming  Nominal  Delphi  Electronic meetings  Devil‟s Advocacy  Quality circles 118
  • 119. Obstacles to group productivity  Breakdown in role development a. Role ambiguity b. Role conflict: person role conflict, intra-role , inter role c. Role overload  Groupthink: deterioration(declining) of mental efficiency, moral judgment resulting from in-group pressures. - This hinders decision –making & becomes an obstacles to group productivity  Social loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend (spend) less effort when working collectively than when working individually - Identifiable individual contributions to the group product - Member self evaluation system 119
  • 120. Production blocking: limiting persons output - Occurs when too many employees are trying to work in a given amount of space - when the organization has poorly planned the use of its facilities. - Organization assigns more no. of employees to one task 120
  • 121. What managers should do to minimize groupthink?  Monitor group size.  Managers should encourage group leaders to play an impartial role.  Appoint one group member to play the role of devil‟s advocate.  Use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group. 121
  • 122. Work teams  Differentiation: - It is the extent to which team members are specialized relative to others in the organization.  Integration: - It is the degree to which the team must co-ordinate with managers, employees, suppliers & customers outside the team. 122
  • 123. Types of teams  Problem solving teams: - 5-10 employees from same department - Meet for few hrs each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency , investigate causes of problem, & work environment. - Share ideas / offer suggestions  Self managed work teams: - Includes collective control over the pace(speed) of work, determination of work assignments, choice of inspection procedures - Select their own members & evaluate each others performance - Teams do their own scheduling, rotate jobs on their own, establish production targets, set pay scales that are linked to skills, fire co- workers & do the hiring 123
  • 124. Cross-functional teams: - Teams made up of employees from about the same hierarchical level but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish the task - Effective to exchange information, develop new ideas, solve problem, co-ordinate complex projects. - Takes time to build trust & teamwork 124
  • 125. Application of team work  Advice/involvement  Production/service  Project/development  Action/negotiation 125
  • 128. Interpersonal Skills/ Facilitation Skills language & communication listening using feedback questioning conflict handling 128
  • 129. IPS enables you to: - Work harmoniously & efficiently with others - Evaluate & accept responsibilities - Identify methods you use to respond to conflict - Work in teams more efficiently. 129
  • 130. Transactional analysis  Transaction defined as unit of social intercourse/interaction is called as transaction  2 / more people encounter each other sooner or later one of them will speak or acknowledge is called as transactional stimulus……. another person will say or do something which is in some way related to stimulus is called as transactional response.  TA is the method for studying interactions between individuals 130
  • 131. It is a model of people & relationships that was developed during the 1960s by Dr.Eric Berne.  Identification of ego-states behind each and every transaction  This was based on notions: 1. We have three parts or ego-states to our „personality‟.(he called them parent, adult & child) 2. Definition of Parent Ego State- a set of feelings, thinking, and behavior that we have copied from parents or guardians. Focuses on the individual but also one‟s relationship to others.  A model for explaining why and how:  People think like they do  People act like they do  People interact/communicate with others 131
  • 132.  Transactional Analysis is a method of understanding people's behavior by analyzing the 'transactions' or interactions which transpire between people.  It was developed in the 1950's using a framework based on Freud, though it deviated from his ideas in several areas.  Transactional Analysis was a psychological research method that focused on social interactions and analysis of relationships of individuals. 132
  • 133.  TA is about relationship within the mind & purposes relationships of various kinds between individuals.  Applied to organisations : in order to understand the human needs & behaviour & ways organisation is effective or ineffective in solving their problems.  Equips the employee with skills in communication & problem solving.  Helps in enhancing productivity by improving working climate, by developing more effective problem-solving strategies & management styles. 133
  • 134.  Berne developed three ego states to explain how the human being is made up and how he relates to other people. These three ego states are Parent Ego State, Adult Ego State, and Child Ego State.  The ideal ego state for Berne is the Adult Ego state, those who live in the adult ego state are able to direct responses.  Those in the adult ego state are able to interact with the world in ways that are not influenced by our Parent Ego states or our Child Ego States. 134
  • 137. Eric Berne and Transactional Analysis Transactional Analysis  People have three ego states: parent, adult, child  Parent: - Nurturing parent is caring & concerned, offer unconditional love - Controlling tries to make the child do, as the parents want them to do.  Child: - Natural child like playing & are open & vulnerable. - Little professor is the curious & exploring. Together with the natural child they make up free child. - Adaptive child reacts to the world arround them, either changing them to fit in or rebelling against the forces they feel. - thinking, feeling, behaving as one did as a child  Adult: thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are a direct result of current happenings 137
  • 138. The Three Ego States Parent- “Do as I do” Child- “What shall I do?” Adult- “I will be frank with you”  Biological conditions are irrelevant to these ego states.  We shift from one ego state to another in transactions. Parent- “Why don’t you prepare a time-table?” Child- “What is the point when one cannot follow it?” – Becomes an Adult. 138
  • 139. Transactional Analysis Transactional analysis (TA): a method of understanding behavior in interpersonal dynamics. The three ego states  Parent  Critical parent  Sympathetic/nurturing parent  Child  Natural child (affectionate playful)  Adapted child  Adult The three types of transactions  Complementary  Crossed  Ulterior 139
  • 140.  Life positions : - Persons convictions about himself/herself: I‟m ok/I‟m not OK - Persons convictions about others You are ok/you are not ok 140
  • 141. Life Positions Attitude toward Oneself Positive I’m OK — I’m OK — You’re not OK You’re OK Negative I’m not OK — I’m not OK — You’re not OK You’re OK Negative Positive Attitude toward Others 141
  • 142. Strokes : - Unit of recognition, when one person recognizes another person either verbally or non-verbally 142
  • 143. Game analysis  I am sure that every one of us must have been in the situation where we have said, "Why does this always keep happening to me" or "I always keep meeting people who hurt me and then go off and leave me".  Sometimes it may be that we like to help people and then it goes wrong as the person we were trying to help says that we didn't do it well enough and that we got it wrong. We might think "Well, I was only trying to help" and feel got at.  When similar situations keep happening over and over again then the term Transactional Analysis uses for this is a game.  A game is a familiar pattern of behaviour with a predictable outcome. 143
  • 144. Power & politics in the organizational 144
  • 145. Power & politics in the organizational ◦ Power – the available force or potential for achieving desired outcomes ◦ Politics – is the use of power to influence decisions in order to achieve those outcomes 145
  • 146. Interpersonal sources of Powers : - Legitimate power - Reward power - Coercive power - Expert power - Information power - Connection power 146
  • 147. Structural Sources of Power  Uncertainty reduction: - Resource control: The departments, groups, or individuals who can provide essential or difficult-to-obtain resources acquire more power in the organization than others. - Information control: information have power because they can reduce uncertainty for others. - Decision-making control  Substitutability : power of individual  Centrality 147
  • 148. Many organizational conditions encourage political activity - Unclear goals - Autocratic decision making - Scarce resources - Uncertainty 148
  • 149. Legitimate political behavior - Complaining to your supervisor - Bypassing the chain of command - Obstructing organizational policies - Excessive adherence to rules 149
  • 150. Illegitimate political behavior - Sabotage(damage) - Whistle –blowing - Group of employees simultaneously applying for casual leave. 150
  • 151. Maccoby‟s four political types  The craftsman: - Driven by achievement - They are least political - They are technical specialist - Person is usually quiet, sincere, modest & practical.  The jungle fighter: - Active politicians - Step on others to get ahead - Believes to go ahead - 2 types of JH: Foxes: makes their own nest, play & plan safe Lions :conquer others territories & build empires 151
  • 152. Company man/women: - conservative behavior - Does not exhibit political behaviour - Concern for humans - Involved with security than success & may miss opportunities that arise.  The gamesman: - Suitable politicians - View business as a game - Grows when there is a competition & challenge 152
  • 153. Leadership  Itis the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence & zeal.  Powers : - Legitimate power - Reward power - Coercive power - Expert power - Information power - Connection power 153
  • 154. Importance  Leaders provide task support  Psychological support  Development of individual  Building the team spirit  Motivation  Provides feedback  Facilitates change 154
  • 155. Qualities of a leader  Intelligence  Personality  Maturity  Vision & foresight  Motivation  Acceptance of responsibility  Self confident  Trustworthy & honest  Risk-taker  Knowledge of human skill 155
  • 156. Nature of leadership  Performance  Communication  Influence  Power base  Interaction  Acceptance 156
  • 157. Styles . . .  Autocratic leadership  Positive & negative style of leadership  Democratic  Bureaucratic  Situational  Laissez-faire/free-rein  Managerial grid style(Robert Blake & James mouton) 157
  • 158. Leadership skills  Human skill - Empathy - Objectivity - Communication skills - Teaching skill - Social skill  Conceptual skills - Understand the organizational behavior - Understand the competitors of the firm - Knowing the financial status of the irm 158
  • 159.  Technical skills  Personal skill - Intelligence - Emotional maturity - Personal motivation - Integrity - Flexibility of mind 159
  • 160. Theories of leadership  Trait theory of leadership  Behavioral theory of leadership  Management grid/leadership grid  Situational theory of leadership  Path-goal theory  Participation theory of leadership 160
  • 162. Trait theory of leadership Seeks to determine personal characteristics of effective leaders.  Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition, energy and initiative  Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to reach shared goals  Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open  Self-confidence: Belief in one‟s self, ideas, and ability  Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and conceptually skilled  Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical matters  Emotional Maturity: well adjusted  Others: creativity and flexibility 162
  • 163. - Good personality - Intellectual ability - Initiative - Imagination - Maturity - Desire to respect responsibility - Self confidence - Flexibility - Fairness & objectivity - Considerate 163
  • 164. Limitations of The Trait Theory  There is bound to be some judgment in determining who is regarded as a „good‟ or „successful‟ leader  There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective leader  Assumes that leadership is an inborn quality which is not true.  Leaders may prove successful in one situation due to some traits but unsuccessful in another situation. 164
  • 165. Behavioral theory  Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born.  this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states.  According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.  Behavior of good leader motivates people. 165
  • 166. Ohio state university studies - Goal of research was 1. Determine what affect these behavior had on employee satisfaction & performance. 2. Identify the best leadership style - Questionnaire was developed (LBDQ)to assess leadership styles - After analysis 2 important leadership behaviours were drawn: 1. Initiating -structure behavior: clearly define role of leader & follower, deciding how task to be performed 2. Consideration -behavior: concern for follower & trying to establish a friendly & supportive work climate based on mutual trust. 166
  • 167. Leader‟s High score IS- - high producing group & rated highly by superiors - Subordinate of those leader have low morale & higher grievances  Leaders high on C - Led group with high morale low productivity - Further concluded that high on both IS & C highly satisfy their superior(by achieving high performance) & subordinates by improving their morale 167
  • 168. University of michigan studies - Under Rensis likert, researcher conducted interview with managers & employees who reported them. - Researcher concluded that 2 leadership styles influence employee performance & satisfaction. 1. Task centered: - Pays close attention on work, deeply interested in performance 1. Employee centered: - Emphasizes on employee well-being rather than task. Conclusion: EC leaders supervised groups with higher morale & productivity TC leaders supervised groups with low morale & productivity EC style is the superior style. 168
  • 169. Path goal theory  Path–goal model, is a leadership theory in the field of organizational studies developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996  the manager‟s job is viewed as guiding workers to choose the best paths to reach their goals, as well as the organizational goals.  Provides coaching, guidance , support & rewards. In particular, leaders:  Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go.  Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there.  Increasing the rewards along the route. 169
  • 170. Supportive leadership  Considering the needs of the follower, showing concern for their welfare and creating a friendly working environment. This includes increasing the follower's self- esteem and making the job more interesting. Directive leadership  Telling followers what needs to be done and giving appropriate guidance along the way. This includes giving them schedules of specific work to be done at specific times. Rewards may also be increased as needed 170
  • 171. Participative leadership  Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into account when making decisions and taking particular actions. This approach is best when the followers are expert and their advice is both needed and they expect to be able to give it. Achievement-oriented leadership  Setting challenging goals, both in work and in self- improvement (and often together). High standards are demonstrated and expected. The leader shows faith in the capabilities of the follower to succeed. This approach is best when the task is complex. 171
  • 172. Situational Theory:  Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables.  Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.  There is no best style of leadership, leader has to change his style from situation to situation  Recent research suggests that managers should diagnose the situation, select a leadership & implement it. 172
  • 173. 3 general factors that affect the appropriate leadership style.  Subordinate considerations: - Reflect the leader‟s awareness of subordinates expertise, experiences, job knowledge etc.  Supervisor considerations: Reflects the leader‟s degree of upward influence.  Task considerations: reflects the degree of time urgency, amount of physical danger, permissible error 173
  • 174. Fiedler‟s contingency theories - Oldest & most controversial theory & also known as contingency /situational leadership - In order to classify leadership styles he has developed a index called as least preferred coworker scale. - Relationship motivated & task motivated. - A high LPC score suggests that the leader has a human relations orientation, while a low LPC score indicates a task orientation. 174
  • 175. Participative Theories:  Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account.  These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process.  In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others. 175
  • 177. Management of change Why change??? - Increase efficiency - Competition - Trends - Market factors - Economic factors - Technological factors. 177
  • 178. Forms of change  Planned change: - Deliberately done - Goal oriented activity - Goals are: Seeks to increase ability of the organisation & its employee.  Unplanned change: - Change agent: individual/group that undertakes the task of introducing & managing a change in an organization is known as a change agent. 178
  • 179. 1. Internal change agents: - Managers / employees who are appointed to oversee the change process. Advantages are: - They know the past history - They are very careful because they must live with the results Disadvantages: - Easily accused of favouritism 179
  • 180.  External change agent: - Such as outside consultant - They bring an outsiders view to the organization. Advantages: - May be preferred by employee because of impartiality - They have more power in directing changes, if employees perceive them trustworthy. Disadvantages: - Can face problem including their limited knowledge of the organizational history 180
  • 181. Resistance to change  Individual - Insecurity - Social factors - Lack of knowledge about the change - Lack of faith in managers - Not aware of benefits of change - Peer pressure  Organizational - Resource constraints - Sunk cost - Cost - Organizational commitment - Threat to expertise 181
  • 182. Overcoming resistance to change - Education & communication - Participation & involvement - Support - Negotiation - Guarantee job security - Manipulation 182
  • 183. Steps in mgmt of change  Perceive a situation for change  Analyse the existing situation  Prepare a plan for change  Try the plan  Overcome resistance to change  Implement the change  Review the change 183
  • 185. OD  There is no single definition of "Organizational Development." If we were to break it into its parts we can discover one meaning: "Organization" has come to mean the coming together of people and resources to form a unit. "Development" in its simplest form suggests change and growth.  So OD could be defined as "the practice of changing people and organizations for positive growth." 185
  • 186. Organizational development (OD) Definition  Theory and practice of planned, systematic change in the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the employees through creation and reinforcement of long-term training programs. OD is action oriented.  O. D. is a systemic and systematic change effort, using behavioural science knowledge and skill, to transform an orgn. to a new state.  Its objective is to enable the organization in adopting- better to the fast-changing external environment of new markets, regulations, and technologies. 186
  • 187. Goals of OD - To improve the functioning of individuals, teams & the total organization - To teach organization members how to continuously improve their own functioning - Decision making on the basis of competence 187
  • 188. Objectives OBJECTIVES OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME 1. To build and enhance interpersonal trust, communication, co-operation & support among all individuals & groups through the organization. 2. Individual and group development. 3. Sense of belonging of individuals to the organisation so that individual & organisational goals are synchronized 4. Development of organization culture and processes by constant interaction between members irrespective of levels of hierarchy. 5. Inculcating team spirit. 6. Empowerment of social side of employees. 188
  • 189. 6. Focus of value development. 7. Employee participation, problem-solving and decision-making at various levels. 8. Evaluate present systems and introduction of new systems thereby achieving total system change if required. 9. Transformation and achievement of competitive edge of the organization. 10. Achieve organization growth by total human inputs by way of research and development, innovations, creativity and exploiting human talent. 189
  • 191. Implications: 1.For Individuals a) Most individuals believe in their personal growth which can be attained in a supportive & challenging work situation. b) Majority of the people are desirous of making greater contributions to the organizations they are serving. 191
  • 192. This leads to adopt the following organization strategy for development: • Ask questions to resolve doubts. • Listen to superior‟s advice. • Support employees • Accept challenge. • Leaders to encourage creativity and promote risk taking. • Give additional responsibility to subordinates. • Set high standards of quality. • Empower employees. • Initiate suitable reward system that should be compatible, if not more than the industry norms. 192
  • 193. 2. For Groups a) One of the most important factors in the organization is the „work group‟ around whom the organization functions. This includes the peer group and the leader (boss) b) More people prefer to be part of the group because the group accepts them. c) Most people are capable of making higher contributions to the group‟s effectiveness. d) Most people interact co-operatively e) Satisfy social & emotional needs at work. 193
  • 194. Following strategy is required to be adopted for group development based on the above assumptions: a) Invest in training and development of the group. Money and time spent on this is an investment for the organization. b) Leaders should also invest in development of skills and thus help create a position organizational climate. c) Let the team flourish. Teams are the best approach to get the work done. Apart from the above teams enjoy emotional and job satisfaction when they work in groups. d) Leaders should adopt team leadership style and not autocratic leadership style. e) Jobs should be allotted to the team and not to the individual. 194
  • 195. d) It is not possible for one individual (leader) to perform both, the leadership and maintenance functions. It is therefore necessary for team members to assist leader in performance of his duties. e) Group should be trained in conflict management, stress management, group decision-making, collaboration, and effective interpersonal communication. This will improve organizational effectiveness. f) Leaders should pay particular attention to the feelings of the employees. It should be understood that suppressed feeling and attitudes adversely affect problem-solving, personal growth and job satisfaction. g) Development of group cohesiveness. 195
  • 196. 3. For Organizations a) Create learning organization culture. b) Adopt win-win strategy for sustained growth. c) Create cooperative dynamics rather than competitive organizational dynamics in the organization. d) Needs and aspirations of the employees in the organization must be met. e) This leads to greater participation of the employees. f) Organizations should adopt developmental outlook and seek opportunities in which people can experience personal and professional growth. Such orientation creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. g) Individuals goals are integrated with organizational goal. 196
  • 197. f) People must be treated with due respect and considered important. The credit of success must be given to the employees unconditioned. g) Promote organizational citizenship. 197
  • 198. Types of OD activities  For individual: - Sensitivity training/T-groups: It is about making people understand about themselves and others reasonably, which is done by developing in them social sensitivity and behavioral flexibility. - An unstructured group of 10-15 people is formed. - Brought together in free environment, participant discuss freely aided by facilitator. - Facilitators creates an opportunity for members to express their ideas, beliefs & attitudes.  For two/ three people: - Transaction analysis - It is act of communication or interaction between 2 people. - Concentrates on styles & content of communication between people. - Teaches people to send messages that are clear & responsible. 198
  • 199. Parent ("exteropsyche"):  a state in which people behave, feel, and think in response to an unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other parental figures) acted, or how they interpreted their parent's actions. Adult ("neopsyche) Child ("archaeopsyche"): - a state in which people behave, feel and think similarly to how they did in childhood. - For example, a person who receives a poor evaluation at work may respond by looking at the floor, and crying or pouting, as they used to when scolded as a child. - Conversely, a person who receives a good evaluation may respond with a broad smile and a joyful gesture of thanks. The Child is the source of emotions, creation, recreation, spontaneity and intimacy. 199
  • 200.  Personality consist of 3 ego states - Ego state: Parent, adult & child  Complementary transactions: Reciprocal or Complementary transactions  A simple, reciprocal transaction occurs when both partners are addressing the ego state the other is in. These are also called complementary transactions. Example 1:  A: "Have you been able to write the report?"  B: "Yes - I'm about to email it to you. Example 2:  A: "Would you like to skip this meeting and go watch a film with me instead?"  B: "I'd love to - I don't want to work anymore, what should we go and see?" 200
  • 201. Student: I don't understand what you are saying. Teacher: What exactly do you not understand? The student's transaction is ulterior, while the teacher feels that she has explained things clearly. The student may seem to be talking from their Adult Ego State, however, the message is coming from their Negative Controlling Parent. The best way for the teacher to respond is in a calm, assertive manner, keeping the idea of Adult Ego State, and hoping to return the transaction to complementary. 201
  • 202. Thus Parental figures are often either more nurturing (permission-giving, security-giving) or more criticizing (comparing to family traditions and ideals in generally negative ways); 202
  • 203. Crossed transactions  Communication failures are typically caused by a 'crossed transaction' where partners address ego states other than that their partner is in. Example 1:  A: "Have you been able to write that report?"  B: "Will you stop hassling me? I'll do it eventually!" This is a crossed transaction likely to produce problems in the workplace. For instance: Example 2:  A: "Is your room tidy yet?"  B: "I'm just going to do it, actually."  This is a more positive crossed transaction. There is however the risk that A will feel aggrieved that B is acting responsibly and not playing their role, and the conversation will develop into: 203
  • 204. Duplex or Covert or ulterior transactions  Student: I don't understand what you are saying. Teacher: What exactly do you not understand? The student's transaction is ulterior, while the teacher feels that she has explained things clearly. The student may seem to be talking from their Adult Ego State, however, the message is coming from their Negative Controlling Parent.  The best way for the teacher to respond is in a calm, assertive manner, keeping the idea of Adult Ego State, and hoping to return the transaction to complementary For instance:  A: "I need you to stay late at the office with me." (Adult words), body language indicates bad intention (flirtatious Child) B: "Of course." (Adult response to Adult statement), winking or grinning (Child accepts the hidden motive). 204
  • 205. Transactional Analysis  Game analysis – understanding transactions that lead to bad feelings  Script analysis – understand a person‟s life plan Script analysis: detailing of specific life drama - Pay-off/curse - Stoppers: unfair negative comments - Counter scripts: messages are in form of slogan. - Programme: it is what parent teaches to child 205
  • 206.  For teams/groups: - Teams, work teams, problem-solving teams, virtual teams, team building.  For intergroup relations: - Seeks to change attitude, perceptions that group have of each other  For total organization 206
  • 207. OD interventions & techniques - They are sets of structured activities in which selected organizational units (target group or individuals) engage in a task or a sequence 1. Sensitivity training/laboratory training/T- groups/encounter group 2. Survey feedback 3. Process consultation 4. Team building 5. Inter-group development 207
  • 208.  Evaluating the effectiveness of OD  The Future & OD 208
  • 210. Organizational culture  Schein -It has also been defined as "the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. 210
  • 211. Elements of culture Schein's model of organizational culture originated in the 1980s. Schein (2004) identifies three distinct levels in organizational cultures  Artifacts  Espoused values  Basic assumptions 211
  • 212. Artifacts: - It include any tangible or verbally identifiable elements in an organization. - Architecture, furniture, dress code, office jokes, and history all exemplify organizational artifacts. - Artifacts are the visible elements in a culture and they can be recognized by people not part of the culture.  Espoused values: - EV are the organization's stated or desired cultural elements. - This is most often a written or stated tone that the CEO or President hope to exude throughout the office environment. - Examples of this would be employee professionalism, or a "family first" mantra. - Trouble may arise if espoused values by leaders are not in line with the general assumptions of the culture.  Assumptions : - They are the actual values that the culture represents, not necessarily correlated to the values. - It's a true reflection of the culture. - These assumptions are typically so well integrated in the office dynamic that they are hard to recognize from within 212
  • 213. Creating & sustaining culture A. How organizational culture begins: - A single person has an idea for a new enterprise. - Founder‟s creation of core group - Indoctrinate socialize - Build a common history B. Sustaining a culture: - Selection - Top management - Socialization: pri-arrival stage, encounter stage, metamorphosis stage. 213
  • 214. 214
  • 215. How employees learn culture?  Stories  Rituals & ceremonies  Materials/cultural symbols  Organisational heroes  Language 215
  • 216. How environment effects managers  Degree of environmental uncertainty: - Degree of change:  Through various stakeholders relationship: - Stockholders - Employees - Suppliers - Competitors 216
  • 218.  Conflict is “an --expressed struggle --between at least two interdependent parties --who perceive incompatible goals, scare resources, and --interference from others in achieving their goals”  Conflicts exist whenever incompatible activities occur. 218
  • 219. Conflict management involves implementing strategies to limit the negative aspects of conflict and to increase the positive aspects of conflict at a level equal to or higher than where the conflict is taking place.  Furthermore, the aim of conflict management is to enhance learning and group outcomes (effectiveness or performance in organizational setting)  It is not concerned with eliminating all conflict or avoiding conflict.  Conflict can be valuable to groups and organizations. It has been shown to increase group outcomes when managed properly 219
  • 220. Conflicts may originate from a number of different sources, including:  Differences in information, beliefs, values, interests, or desires.  A scarcity of some resource.  Rivalries in which one person or group competes with another. 220
  • 221.  Conflict is the result of a situation wherein the needs or ideas of one person are at odds or in opposition to the needs or ideas of another.  Conflict is an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceives incompatible goals, scarce rewards and interference 221
  • 222. Conflict is a problem when it: 1. Hampers productivity. 2. Lowers morale. 3. Causes more and continued conflicts. 4. Causes inappropriate behaviors. 222
  • 223. Outcomes of conflict  Functional conflict  Dysfunctional conflict Sources of OC: - Line & staff competition - Organization-individual disagreement - Overlapping responsibilities - Functional interdependence - Personality clashes - Disagreement over goals - Bottlenecks in the flow of work 223
  • 224. 224
  • 225. Levels of conflict or forms of conflict  Intra-individual or intrapersonal conflict: - Cognitive conflict - Affective conflict  Inter-individual conflict  Individual-group  Inter-group conflict  Organizational level 225
  • 226. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT:  Five conflict management modes/strategies Withdrawal/Avoidance. Smoothing/Accomodating. Compromising Forcing/Competing. Problem solving/collaboration 226
  • 227. CONFLICT APPROACHES: Competing/forcing.  Attempt to win with presumption that others will lose  The issue is trivial and others don‟t really care what happens.  You‟re sure you‟re right, and being right matters more than preserving relationships.  Low on assertiveness & cooperativeness 227
  • 228.  Accommodating - Attempts to satisfy another person‟s objectives. - It is cooperative but unassertive  Avoiding - Low on both Assertiveness & cooperativeness - Stay out of a conflict situation 228
  • 229. COLLABORATING:  Co-operation is important.  Seeks to make everyone winner  Discussion & arrive to satisfactory solution  It is a win-win style  High on both assertiveness & cooperativeness 229
  • 230.  Collaborating: win/win  Compromising: win some/lose some  Accommodating: lose/win  Competing: win/lose  Avoiding: no winners/no losers 230
  • 231. Stress  Stress is the body's reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response.  Stress can come from any situation or thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, nervous, or anxious.  Stress is caused by an existing stress-causing factor or "stressor.“ (The situations and pressures that cause stress are known as stressors).  Dealing with a serious illness or caring for someone who is can cause a great deal of stress. 231
  • 232. Physical Stressors  Excess/to little exercise  Poor diet  Drug misuse  Alcohol misuse  Excess heat  Excess caffeine  Excess cold  Illness  Smoking  Lack of relaxation 232
  • 233. Environmental Stressors  Pollution  Excess noise  Poor housing  Traffic jams 233
  • 234. Psychological Stressors  Excess anger  Unrealistic beliefs  Health worries  Unrealistic expectations  Excessive worrying  Unhappy childhood  Unemployment  Financial problems  Lonelines 234
  • 236. General Adoption Syndrome(GAS)  General adaptation syndrome, or GAS, is a term used to describe the body's short- term and long-term reactions to stress.  Stressors in humans include such physical stressors as starvation, being hit by a car.  Originally described by Hans Selye (1907– 1982), an Austrian-born physician who emigrated to Canada in 1939, the general adaptation syndrome represents a three- stage reaction to stress. 236
  • 237. 237
  • 238. Stage 1: alarm reaction (ar)  The first stage of the general adaptation stage, the alarm reaction, is the immediate reaction to a stressor.  In the initial phase of stress, humans exhibit a "fight or flight" response, which prepares the body for physical activity.  This initial response can also decrease the effectiveness of the immune system, making persons more susceptible to illness during this phase. 238
  • 239. Stage 2: stage of resistance (sr)  Stage 2 might also be named the stage of adaptation, instead of the stage of resistance.  During this phase, if the stress continues, the body adapts to the stressors it is exposed to.  Changes at many levels take place in order to reduce the effect of the stressor. 239
  • 240. Stage 3: stage of exhaustion (se)  At this stage, the stress has continued for some time.  The body's resistance to the stress may gradually be reduced, or may collapse quickly.  Generally, this means the immune system, and the body's ability to resist disease, may be almost totally eliminated.  Patients who experience long-term stress may succumb to heart attacks or severe infection due to their reduced immunity.  For example, a person with a stressful job may experience long-term stress that might lead to high blood pressure and an eventual heart attack. 240
  • 241. Approaches to stress  The homeostatic /medical approach: - Walter canon medical psychologist who discovered stress & called it “the emergency response” or the militaristic response” - According to him stress results when environmental demand upset the person‟s natural balance referred to as homeostasis. - He called stress response as fight/flight response - He believed the body was designed with natural defense mechanisms. 241
  • 242. Cognitive Appraisal approach: (Richard Lazarus (1977) - Stress evoked by an event depends on how people interpret the event & what they can do about it. - He saw stress as a result of a person-environment interaction. - What is stressful for one person may not be stressful for another.  Person-environment fit approach:(Robert Kahn) - How confusing & conflicting expectations of a person in a social role create stress for a person. - Stress occurs when role expectations are confusing & conflicting or when person‟s skills & abilities are not able to meet the demand of the social role  Psychoanalytic approach: Harry Levenson believes that two elements of the personality interact to cause stress: - Ego ideal - Self image 242
  • 243. Causes of stress  Internal stimuli for stress: - Inner conflicts - Perceptual influences - Thresholds of stress - Motivational level  Environmental stressors Task demand: - Are related to person’s job - Includes individual’s job, working conditions & the physical work layout. - Changes & lack of control are 2 stressful demands people face at work. Role demand: 1. Inter-role conflict: conflicting expectations between 2 separate roles 2. Intra-role conflict: conflicting expectations between single role 3. Person-role conflict: violating ethics, values, beliefs or principles. 243
  • 244. Inter-personal demands: - Pressures created by other employees. - Lack of social support from colleagues & poor interpersonal relations can cause stress. 1. The abrasive person: may be an able & talented employee, but one who creates emotional waves. 2. Sexual harassment 3. Leadership styles 244
  • 245. Individual response to stress  Life events  Type A behavior pattern: - Behavior pattern is of complex of personality - Includes competitiveness - They set a high standards, push themselves to achieve & worry about time pressures - They try to get more & more in less & less time. - Managers should assign Type A person‟s to difficult projects.  Type B behavior pattern: - Never suffer from time urgency - Feel no need to display & discuss their achievement - Ability to relax without guilt. 245
  • 246.  Negative affectivity: people tend to focus on negative side - They perceive them under stress & poor health.  Self-reliance(Reliance on one's own capabilities, judgment, or resources; independence) - Counter dependence: • it is unhealthy, leads to separation in relationship, counter dependent people exhibit a fearless, aggressive & actively powerful response to challenges. - Over dependence 246
  • 247. Managing stress  Individual level - Time management - physical exercise - Relaxation & biofeedback - Development of social support - Adjustment of perception - Leisure time activities - Diet 247
  • 248. Organizational level - Job redesigning: give more responsibility, More meaningful work, Increased feedback reduce stress as have greater control on work activities. - Goal setting: reducing degree of role-conflict - Organizational communication - Employee wellness programme - Social support system at the work place 248
  • 249. Crisis Management  Three elements are common to most definitions of crisis: (a) a threat to the organization, (b) the element of surprise, and (c) a short decision time.  Crisis management is the nature of activities to respond to a major threat to a person, group or organization.  Crisis management is a relatively new field of management.  Typically, proactive crisis management activities include forecasting potential crises and planning how to deal with them Crisis management involves:  Identifying potential crisis  Develop policies to minimize crisis situations  Develop crisis management teams  Crisis communication planning 249
  • 251. 251

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