SlideShare ist ein Scribd-Unternehmen logo
1 von 64
Downloaden Sie, um offline zu lesen
Research Methodology
An Introduction
Dr. S. Parasuraman, M.Pharm., Ph.D.,
Associate Professor, Unit of Pharmacology,
Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University,
Bedong 08100, Malaysia.
Basrelief sculpture "Research
holding the torch of knowledge"
(1896) by Olin Levi Warner.
Library of Congress, Thomas
Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
Aristotle, (384–322 BC),
one of the early figures in
the development of the
scientific method.
The research room at the New York Public Library.
Cover of the first
issue of Nature, 4
November 1869.
Feb. 2019 2
Topic Learning Outcome
• Upon successful completion of this topic, students
should be able to:
• explain the structure of research, types of research,
research approaches, research process, significance of
research and criteria of good research.
• outline the types of literature and discuss the basic
elements of effective literature search with the
citations.
• describe seven step process of statistical hypothesis
testing and level of statistical significance.
• outline the functions of ethics committee.
Feb. 2019 3
Research
Research comprises “creative and systematic
work undertaken to increase the stock of
knowledge, including knowledge of humans,
culture and society, and the use of this stock of
knowledge to devise new applications.”
-- OECD 2015
-- Frascati Manual 2015
Feb. 2019 4
Research
Research is…..
• Searching for explanation of events, phenomena,
relationships and causes
• A process
Research is not…..
• Data collection (intermediate step to gain reliable
knowledge)
• Searching out published research results in libraries
Feb. 2019 5
Methodology & Method
Methodology
• The study of the general approach to inquiry in a
given field.
Method
• The specific techniques, tools or procedures applied
to achieve a given objective.
• Research methods in economics include regression
analysis, mathematical analysis, operations research,
surveys, data gathering, etc.
Feb. 2019 6
Objectives of research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
Procedures. Research objectives as falling into following
broad groupings:
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
new insights into it.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group.
• To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something else
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables
Feb. 2019 7
General
Specific
General
Introduction
1. Identify problem area and state importance
(Field establishment)
2. Review relevant research literature
(Description of pervious research)
3. Identify a gap or ‘Research space’
(Specific area for research)
4. State research aim – to fill that gap
(Set research question (RQ) and hypothesis)
Specific
Empirical and original
part of your study
Method
Result & interpretation
Discussion
4. Match result with RQ and hypothesis
(Confirm)
5. Implication of specific knowledge area
6. Significant of the field
1. Recommendation for further research
Conclusion
[Reference]
Structure of research
The Hourglass: a dynamic organisational model
Feb. 2019 8
Research Process
• Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the
desired sequencing of these steps.
Feb. 2019 9
Types of research
• Descriptive vs. Analytical
• Applied vs. Fundamental
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Conceptual vs. Empirical
Feb. 2019 10
Types of research
• Descriptive vs. Analytical
– Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.
– In analytical research, the researcher has to use
facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Feb. 2019 11
Types of research
• Applied vs. Fundamental
– Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Feb. 2019 12
Types of research
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
– Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
– Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind.
Feb. 2019 13
Types of research
• Conceptual vs. Empirical
– Conceptual research is that related to some
abstract idea(s) or theory.
– empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.
Feb. 2019 14
Research Approaches
• Two basic approaches to research are
– Quantitative approach
• Inferential approaches: Research is to form a data base
from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population
• Experimental approaches: Characterised by much
greater control over the research environment and in
this case some variables are manipulated to observe
their effect on other variables.
• Simulation approaches: Involves the construction of an
artificial environment within which relevant information
and data can be generated
– Qualitative approach: to research is concerned with
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
Feb. 2019 15
Significance of research
• Significance of research are
– to promote the development of logical habits of
thinking and organisation.
– to solve various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
– to generalisations of new theories.
Feb. 2019 16
Criteria of good research
• The purpose of the research should be clearly.
• The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail.
• The researcher should report with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects
upon the findings.
• The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.
• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the
data of the research.
• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced.
Feb. 2019 17
Qualities of a good research
• Good research is
–Systematic
–Logical
–empirical
–replicable
Feb. 2019 18
Literature search and review
Feb. 2019 19
Types of literature reviews
• Narrative or traditional literature reviews
• Scoping reviews
• Systematic quantitative literature review
• Cochrane reviews
• Campbell collaboration
Feb. 2019 20
Types of literature reviews
Narrative or traditional literature reviews:
• A narrative or traditional literature review is a
comprehensive, critical and objective analysis of the
current knowledge on a topic. They are an essential
part of the research process and help to establish a
theoretical framework and focus or context for your
research.
• Four common types of narrative reviews are general
literature review, theoretical literature review,
methodological literature review and historical
literature review.
Feb. 2019 21
Literature Review: Traditional or narrative literature reviews. Available in https://libguides.csu.edu.au/c.php?g=476545&p=3997199 [Last assessed on 24 Feb. 2019]
Types of literature reviews
Scoping reviews
• A scoping review is not necessarily less work than a
systematic review.
• A scoping review or scoping study is a form of
knowledge synthesis that addresses an exploratory
research question aimed at mapping key concepts,
types of evidence, and gaps in research related to a
defined area or field by systematically searching,
selecting, and synthesizing existing knowledge.
Feb. 2019 22
Colquhoun, et al. J of Clin Epi. 2014, 67, p. 1292-94
Types of literature reviews
Systematic quantitative literature review
• Method for integrating or comparing the findings
from qualitative studies. It looks for ‘themes’ or
‘constructs’ that lie in or across individual qualitative
studies.
Cochrane reviews
• Cochrane Reviews are systematic reviews of primary
research in human health care and health policy, and
are internationally recognised as the highest standard
in evidence-based health care.
Feb. 2019 23
https://guides.mclibrary.duke.edu/sysreview/types
http://www.evidentlycochrane.net/what-are-cochrane-reviews/
Types of literature reviews
Campbell collaboration
• The Campbell Collaboration is an international
volunteer network of policymakers, researchers,
practitioners, and consumers who prepare, maintain,
and disseminate systematic reviews of studies of
interventions in the social and behavioral sciences.
Feb. 2019 24
http://ktdrr.org/ktlibrary/articles_pubs/ncddrwork/focus/focus16/
Summary of the different types of
literature reviews
Feb. 2019 25
https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/160506/WEB_What-are-systematic-quantiative-reviews-and-why-use-them-July-2017.pdf
Steps in literature review
• Literature search
• Sorting the literature
• Analysing the literature
• Comparison
• Structure of literature review
• Writing the literature review
Feb. 2019 26
Pautasso M. Ten simple rules for writing a literature review. PLoS Comput Biol. 2013;9(7):e1003149.
Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review
• Rule 1: Define a topic and audience
• Rule 2: Search and re-search the literature
• Rule 3: Take notes while reading
• Rule 4: Choose the type of review you wish to write
• Rule 5: Keep the review focused, but make it of broad
interest
• Rule 6: Be critical and consistent
• Rule 7: Find a logical structure
• Rule 8: Make use of feedback
• Rule 9: Include Your own relevant research, but be
objective
• Rule 10: Be Up-to-Date, but do not forget older studies
Feb. 2019 27
Pautasso M. Ten simple rules for writing a literature review. PLoS Comput Biol. 2013;9(7):e1003149.
Common errors made in literature reviews
• Review isn’t logically organized
• Review isn’t focused on most important facets of the
study
• Review doesn’t relate literature to the study
• Too few references or outdated references cited
• Review isn’t written in author’s own words
• Review reads like a series of disjointed summaries
• Review doesn’t argue a point
• Recent references are omitted
• Plagiarism
Feb. 2019 28
Research hypothesis
Feb. 2019 29
Research hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is
proposed for the sake of argument so that it can
be tested to see if it might be true.
Feb. 2019 30
Research hypothesis
• Seven step process of statistical hypothesis testing
– Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis
– Step 2: State the Alternative Hypothesis
– Step 3: Set α
– Step 4: Collect Data
– Step 5: Calculate a test statistic
– Step 6: Construct rejection regions
– Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion about H0
Feb. 2019 31
Research hypothesis
Feb. 2019 32
Referencing style
• A referencing style is a set of rules telling you how to
acknowledge the thoughts, ideas and works of others
in a particular way.
Feb. 2019 33
Abbreviation Full Name
ACS American Chemical Society
AMA American Medical Association
AMJ Academy of Management style
APA American Psychological Association
Chicago Chicago Manual of Style
CSE (CBE) Council of Science Editors/Council of Biology Editors
Harvard
MLA Modern Language Association of America
Vancouver
Referencing style - APA
• This is the standard style used in Psychology, but it is also
widely used in other disciplines, especially in the Social
Sciences. It is an author-date style; one of the many
variants of the Harvard style.
Citing a book
• APA format structure:
– Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work. Publisher City,
State: Publisher.
• APA format example:
– Finney, J. (1970). Time and again. New York, NY: Simon and
Schuster.
Feb. 2019 34
Referencing style - APA
Citing a Journal
• APA format structure:
– Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical Title,
Volume(Issue), pp.-pp.
• APA format example:
– Cushnie, T. T., & Lamb, A. J. (2005). Antimicrobial activity of
flavonoids. International journal of antimicrobial agents,
26(5), 343-356.
Feb. 2019 35
Referencing style - Harvard
• Harvard Reference List Citations for Books with One
Author
• Harvard format structure:
– Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. Edition. (Only
include the edition if it is not the first edition) City
published: Publisher, Page(s).
• Harvard format example:
– Dahl, R. (2004). Charlie and the chocolate factory. 6th ed.
New York: Knopf.
Feb. 2019 36
Referencing style - Harvard
• Harvard Reference List Citations for Chapters in Edited
Books
• Harvard format structure:
– Last name, First initial. (Year published). Chapter title. In: First
initial. Last name, ed., Book Title, 1st ed.* City: Publisher,
Page(s).
• Harvard format example:
– Bressler, L. (2010). My girl, Kylie. In: L. Matheson, ed., The Dogs
That We Love, 1st ed. Boston: Jacobson Ltd., pp. 78-92.
Feb. 2019 37
Referencing style - Harvard
Citing a Journal
• Harvard format structure:
– Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title.
Journal, Volume (Issue), Page(s).
• Harvard format example:
– Ross, N. (2015). On Truth Content and False Consciousness
in Adorno’s Aesthetic Theory. Philosophy Today, 59(2), pp.
269-290.
Feb. 2019 38
Referencing style - Vancouver style
Citing a Journal
• Vancouver style format structure:
– Last name First initial. Article title. Journal abbreviation.
Year published; Volume (Issue): Page(s).
• Vancouver style format example:
– Younger P. Using the internet to conduct a literature search.
Nurs Stand. 2004;19(6); 45-51.
Feb. 2019 39
General APA Guidelines
• The list of references must be on a new page at the
end of your text.
• The word References should be centered at the top of
the page. Do not underline, bold, enlarge or use
quotes for the word References.
• The reference list must include all references cited in
the text of your paper.
• The only exceptions to this rule are personal
communications and classical works; they are cited in
text only and are not included in the Reference list.
Feb. 2019 40
General APA Guidelines
• Abbreviations:
o ed. = edition
o Ed. or Eds. = Editor(s)
o n.d. = no date (for not date of publication)
o p. or pp. = Page(s)
o Vol. or Vols. = Volume(s)
o No. = Number
Feb. 2019 41
Biomedical ethics
(Animals)
Feb. 2019 42
Biomedical ethics
Animal ethics
• Animal ethics is a term used in academia to describe
human–animal relationships and how animals ought
to be treated. The subject matter includes animal
rights, animal welfare, animal law, speciesism,
animal cognition, wildlife conservation, the moral
status of nonhuman animals, the concept of
nonhuman personhood, human exceptionalism, the
history of animal use, and theories of justice.
Feb. 2019 43
Ethics in research with animals
• Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE)
• American Psychological Association's (APA's) 2002
Ethics Code
– Acquire, care for, use and dispose of animals in compliance
with current federal, state and local laws and regulations,
and with professional standards.
– Ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are
using animals have received instruction in research
methods and in the care, maintenance and handling of the
species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role.
– Make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort,
infection, illness and pain of animal subjects.
Feb. 2019 44
Ethics in research with animals
• Ethics in research with animals (Cont.,)
– Use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress or
privation only when an alternative procedure is unavailable
and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific,
educational or applied value.
– Perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia
and follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain
during and after surgery.
– Proceed rapidly when it is appropriate that an animal's life
be terminated, with an effort to minimize pain and in
accordance with accepted procedures.
Feb. 2019 45
Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research. Available in https://www.apa.org/science/leadership/care/guidelines
[Last assessed on 25 Feb. 2019]
Commonly used laboratory animals
• Dog
• Monkey
• Guinea pig
• Hamster
• Gerbil
• Rabbit
• Rat
• Mouse
Feb. 2019 46
Biomedical ethics
(Human)
Feb. 2019 47
Edward Jenner vaccinating James Phipps,
a boy of eight, on 14 May 1796. Jenner
failed to use a control group.
Biomedical ethics
Human ethics committee:
• Earlier, in the 1900s, there were no regulations
regarding the ethical use of human subjects in
research.
• An ethics committee is a body responsible for
ensuring that medical experimentation and human
research are carried out in an ethical manner in
accordance with national and international law.
Feb. 2019 48
Biomedical ethics
HISTORY:
• History of research with human subjects opened on
December 9, 1946, when an American military tribunal
opened criminal proceedings against 23 leading German
physicians and administrators for their willing
participation in war crimes and crimes against humanity.
• As a direct result of the trial, the Nuremberg Code was
established in 1948, stating that ‘The voluntary consent of
the human subject is absolutely essential,’ making it clear
that subjects should give consent and that the benefits of
the research must outweigh the risks.
Feb. 2019 49
Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
Biomedical ethics
History:
• THE TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY (1932 – 1972)
• One of the turning points in the development of a
consensus for guidelines for ethical conduct in
research was a project conducted by the US Public
Health Service.
• The study sparked off a wide-scale public outrage
when it became publicly known, and the US
government had to close it in 1973.
Feb. 2019 50
Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
Biomedical ethics
History:
• THE TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY (1932 – 1972)
Feb. 2019 51
https://www.thecoli.com/threads/tuskegee-syphilis-experiments-on-blacks-1932-1972.174212/
https://3goodwords.wordpress.com/2015/02/01/black-history-month-the-tuskegee-experiment/comment-page-1/
Biomedical ethics
Feb. 2019 52
• The Nazi Medical War Crimes
• Dachau
• Execution of Dachau SS
• Eisenhower at Ohrdruf
• War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg
• The Nuremberg Trial
• The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
• Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study
• Willowbrook Study
• Cincinnati Radiation Experiments
• The Radioactive Milk Study
• The Belmont Report
Biomedical ethics
THE BELMONT REPORT:
• The Belmont Report was published in 1979, with
attempts to summarize the basic ethical principles
identified by the Commission in the course of its
deliberations. The Report is a statement of the basic
ethical principles and guidelines that should assist in
resolving the ethical problems that surround the
conduct of research with human subjects.
Feb. 2019 53
Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
Biomedical ethics
THE BELMONT REPORT (1979):
Feb. 2019 54
Three basic ethical
principles (Respect for
persons, Beneficence,
Justice) and their
corresponding
applications according to
the Belmont report:
Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human
research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
Biomedical ethics
Declaration of Helsinki:
• The Declaration of Helsinki is a set of ethical
principles regarding human experimentation
developed for the medical community by the World
Medical Association (WMA).
Feb. 2019 55
Biomedical ethics
The Declaration of Helsinki:
• In 1964, the World Medical Association established
recommendations guiding medical doctors in biomedical
research involving human subjects.
• Issues addressed in the declaration of Helsinki includes:
– Research with humans should be based on the results from
laboratory and animal experimentation
– Research protocols should be reviewed by an independent
committee prior to initiation
– Informed consent from research participants is necessary
– Research should be conducted by medically / scientifically
qualified individuals
– Risks should not exceed benefits
Feb. 2019 56
Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
Biomedical ethics
• Declaration of Helsinki:
Feb. 2019 57
Seventh revision
(2013)
First revision
(1975)
The Declaration
was originally
adopted in June
1964 in Helsinki,
Finland
Biomedical ethics
General Principles Declaration of Helsinki:
• The Declaration of Geneva of the WMA binds the
physician with the words, “The health of my patient
will be my first consideration,” and the International
Code of Medical Ethics declares that, “A physician
shall act in the patient’s best interest when
providing medical care.”
• It is the duty of the physician to promote and
safeguard the health, well-being and rights of
patients
Feb. 2019 58
Biomedical ethics
General Principles Declaration of Helsinki:
• The primary purpose of medical research involving
human subjects is to understand the causes,
development and effects of diseases and improve
preventive, diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.
• Medical research is subject to ethical standards that
promote and ensure respect for all human subjects
and protect their health and rights.
• Primary purpose of medical research is to generate
new knowledge, this goal can never take precedence
over the rights and interests of individual research
subjects.
Feb. 2019 59
Biomedical ethics
General Principles Declaration of Helsinki:
• It is the duty of physicians who are involved in
medical research to protect the life, health, dignity,
integrity, right to self-determination, privacy, and
confidentiality of personal information of research
subjects.
• Physicians must consider the ethical, legal and
regulatory norms and standards for research
involving human subjects in their own countries as
well as applicable international norms and standards.
Feb. 2019 60
https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/
Biomedical ethics
National Medical Research Register (NMRR):
• The NMRR is a web-based service initiated by the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) of the Ministry of
Health (MOH).
• It is a web based tool designed to support the
implementation of the National Institute of Health
(NIH) guideline on the conduct of research in the
Ministry of Health Malaysia (MOH)
Feb. 2019 61
Biomedical ethics
National Medical Research Register (NMRR):
• Current MOH policy on research
– Registration of all research that involves MOH personnel OR that
is to be conducted in MOH facility OR to be funded by MOH
research grant
– Review & approval of the research by a designated entity to
whom authority has been delegated for the purpose
– In addition, research involving human subjects requires prior
review and approval by the MOH Research and Ethics
Committee (MREC)
– Approval of all research publications, whether in the form of
research report, journal article or conference proceeding, by the
NIH initially and thereafter by the Director General of MOH
Feb. 2019 62
Biomedical ethics
COMMON RULE (Human ethics):
• The main elements of the Common Rule include:
– requirements for assuring compliance by research
institutions
– requirements for researchers obtaining and documenting
informed consent
– requirements for Institutional Review Board (IRB)
membership, function, operations, review of research, and
record keeping
– additional protection for certain vulnerable research
subjects – pregnant women, prisoners, and children
Feb. 2019 63
Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
Thank youFeb. 2019 64

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Was ist angesagt?

Research methodology & Biostatistics
Research methodology & Biostatistics  Research methodology & Biostatistics
Research methodology & Biostatistics Kusum Gaur
 
General research methodology
General research methodologyGeneral research methodology
General research methodologykhadepoonam640
 
What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?
What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?
What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?pharmacampus
 
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptx
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptx(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptx
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptxRAHUL PAL
 
PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,
PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,
PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,Naveen K L
 
Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)
Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)
Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)Prachi Pandey
 
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta Sawant
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta SawantNON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta Sawant
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta SawantPRAJAKTASAWANT33
 
Designing the methodology - B.Pharm
Designing the methodology - B.PharmDesigning the methodology - B.Pharm
Designing the methodology - B.PharmHimanshu Sharma
 
Research methodology
Research methodologyResearch methodology
Research methodologyTosif Ahmad
 
Biostatics and Research Methodology
Biostatics and Research MethodologyBiostatics and Research Methodology
Biostatics and Research MethodologyShagufta Farooqui
 
Observational Studies and their Reporting Guidelines
Observational Studies and their Reporting GuidelinesObservational Studies and their Reporting Guidelines
Observational Studies and their Reporting Guidelineskopalsharma85
 
R M Notes
R M  NotesR M  Notes
R M NotesBob Bin
 
Medical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interest
Medical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interestMedical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interest
Medical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interestPratik Parikh
 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGYBinuja S.S
 

Was ist angesagt? (20)

Research methodology & Biostatistics
Research methodology & Biostatistics  Research methodology & Biostatistics
Research methodology & Biostatistics
 
General research methodology
General research methodologyGeneral research methodology
General research methodology
 
What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?
What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?
What are the applications of Biostatistics in Pharmacy?
 
Declaration of helsinki (Pharmacology SEM-III)
Declaration of helsinki (Pharmacology SEM-III)Declaration of helsinki (Pharmacology SEM-III)
Declaration of helsinki (Pharmacology SEM-III)
 
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptx
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptx(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptx
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptx
 
PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,
PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,
PPT on Sample Size, Importance of Sample Size,
 
Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)
Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)
Research Methodology_UNIT_I_General Research Methodology M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)
 
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta Sawant
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta SawantNON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta Sawant
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS by Prajakta Sawant
 
Designing the methodology - B.Pharm
Designing the methodology - B.PharmDesigning the methodology - B.Pharm
Designing the methodology - B.Pharm
 
Research methodology
Research methodologyResearch methodology
Research methodology
 
Crossover study design
Crossover study designCrossover study design
Crossover study design
 
Biostatics and Research Methodology
Biostatics and Research MethodologyBiostatics and Research Methodology
Biostatics and Research Methodology
 
Observational Studies and their Reporting Guidelines
Observational Studies and their Reporting GuidelinesObservational Studies and their Reporting Guidelines
Observational Studies and their Reporting Guidelines
 
Medical research
Medical researchMedical research
Medical research
 
R M Notes
R M  NotesR M  Notes
R M Notes
 
Protocol writing
Protocol writingProtocol writing
Protocol writing
 
Helsinki decleration
Helsinki declerationHelsinki decleration
Helsinki decleration
 
Medical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interest
Medical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interestMedical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interest
Medical Research - Cultural concerns, Truth telling & Conflict of interest
 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 
Medical research
Medical researchMedical research
Medical research
 

Ähnlich wie Research methodoloy

Chapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and review
Chapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and reviewChapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and review
Chapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and reviewMohd. Noor Abdul Hamid
 
researchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdf
researchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdfresearchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdf
researchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdfMdali657802
 
Research Methodology Part I
Research Methodology Part IResearch Methodology Part I
Research Methodology Part IAnwar Siddiqui
 
Conducting research in Librarianship
Conducting research in Librarianship Conducting research in Librarianship
Conducting research in Librarianship Fe Angela Verzosa
 
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxUnit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxPraveen Kumar
 
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxUnit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxPraveen Kumar
 
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxUnit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxPraveen Kumar
 
INTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptx
INTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptxINTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptx
INTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptxSamuelAbragham
 
Week 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposal
Week 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposalWeek 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposal
Week 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposaldsanjose
 
Literature review.pdf
Literature review.pdfLiterature review.pdf
Literature review.pdfSHENU5
 
3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.ppt
3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.ppt3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.ppt
3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.pptDrSandeepKautish
 
Systematic Review-Scoping Review
Systematic Review-Scoping ReviewSystematic Review-Scoping Review
Systematic Review-Scoping ReviewNeda Firouraghi
 
research process
 research process research process
research processkpgandhi
 
lec1.pdf
lec1.pdflec1.pdf
lec1.pdfjeys3
 
Chapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdf
Chapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdfChapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdf
Chapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdfJUNGERONA
 
Research methods of articles and reports
Research methods of articles and reportsResearch methods of articles and reports
Research methods of articles and reportsAjay ed
 
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdf
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdfResearch Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdf
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdfssusercf9767
 

Ähnlich wie Research methodoloy (20)

Chapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and review
Chapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and reviewChapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and review
Chapter 2 incorporating theory and conducting literature search and review
 
researchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdf
researchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdfresearchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdf
researchmethodologyi-140707092303-phpapp02.pdf
 
Research Methodology Part I
Research Methodology Part IResearch Methodology Part I
Research Methodology Part I
 
101-Types-of-Review-Salim_Marcus_Turin.pdf
101-Types-of-Review-Salim_Marcus_Turin.pdf101-Types-of-Review-Salim_Marcus_Turin.pdf
101-Types-of-Review-Salim_Marcus_Turin.pdf
 
Conducting research in Librarianship
Conducting research in Librarianship Conducting research in Librarianship
Conducting research in Librarianship
 
Jameel 6461 day 2.pdf
Jameel 6461 day 2.pdfJameel 6461 day 2.pdf
Jameel 6461 day 2.pdf
 
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxUnit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
 
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxUnit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
 
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptxUnit2-Literature Survey.pptx
Unit2-Literature Survey.pptx
 
Review of Literature
Review of LiteratureReview of Literature
Review of Literature
 
INTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptx
INTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptxINTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptx
INTELLECTUAL AND PROPERTY RIGHTSunit 1 R23 (1).pptx
 
Week 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposal
Week 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposalWeek 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposal
Week 4 and 5 design and writing a research proposal
 
Literature review.pdf
Literature review.pdfLiterature review.pdf
Literature review.pdf
 
3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.ppt
3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.ppt3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.ppt
3-7-systematic-review-abawi-2021.ppt
 
Systematic Review-Scoping Review
Systematic Review-Scoping ReviewSystematic Review-Scoping Review
Systematic Review-Scoping Review
 
research process
 research process research process
research process
 
lec1.pdf
lec1.pdflec1.pdf
lec1.pdf
 
Chapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdf
Chapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdfChapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdf
Chapter4-Methods_of_Research-Module.pdf
 
Research methods of articles and reports
Research methods of articles and reportsResearch methods of articles and reports
Research methods of articles and reports
 
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdf
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdfResearch Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdf
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdf
 

Mehr von Subramani Parasuraman

Mehr von Subramani Parasuraman (20)

Research with animals and animal models.pptx
Research with animals and animal models.pptxResearch with animals and animal models.pptx
Research with animals and animal models.pptx
 
Nicotine and Tobacco
Nicotine and TobaccoNicotine and Tobacco
Nicotine and Tobacco
 
Statistical software.pptx
Statistical software.pptxStatistical software.pptx
Statistical software.pptx
 
Cerebellum and control of postures and movements.pptx
Cerebellum and control of postures and movements.pptxCerebellum and control of postures and movements.pptx
Cerebellum and control of postures and movements.pptx
 
Drugs Used in Renal Alteration
Drugs Used in Renal AlterationDrugs Used in Renal Alteration
Drugs Used in Renal Alteration
 
Drugs Used in Endocrine Alteration
Drugs Used in Endocrine AlterationDrugs Used in Endocrine Alteration
Drugs Used in Endocrine Alteration
 
Antidiabetic drugs
Antidiabetic drugsAntidiabetic drugs
Antidiabetic drugs
 
Pancreatic Hormones
Pancreatic HormonesPancreatic Hormones
Pancreatic Hormones
 
Terrestrial laboratory animals
Terrestrial laboratory animalsTerrestrial laboratory animals
Terrestrial laboratory animals
 
Drugs used in haematological disorders
Drugs used in haematological disordersDrugs used in haematological disorders
Drugs used in haematological disorders
 
Laboratory animals
Laboratory animalsLaboratory animals
Laboratory animals
 
Immunomodulators-1.pptx
Immunomodulators-1.pptxImmunomodulators-1.pptx
Immunomodulators-1.pptx
 
Immunomodulators - 3.pptx
Immunomodulators - 3.pptxImmunomodulators - 3.pptx
Immunomodulators - 3.pptx
 
Immunomodulators - 2.pptx
Immunomodulators - 2.pptxImmunomodulators - 2.pptx
Immunomodulators - 2.pptx
 
Acetylcholine bioassay
 Acetylcholine bioassay Acetylcholine bioassay
Acetylcholine bioassay
 
Oxytocin bioassay
Oxytocin bioassayOxytocin bioassay
Oxytocin bioassay
 
Type of bioassays
Type of bioassaysType of bioassays
Type of bioassays
 
Principles of bioassay
Principles of bioassayPrinciples of bioassay
Principles of bioassay
 
PK - Excretion.pptx
PK - Excretion.pptxPK - Excretion.pptx
PK - Excretion.pptx
 
Absorption
AbsorptionAbsorption
Absorption
 

Kürzlich hochgeladen

Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive EducationBenefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive EducationMJDuyan
 
UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024
UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024
UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024UKCGE
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxheathfieldcps1
 
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptxPrescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptxraviapr7
 
The Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice documentThe Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice documentXsasf Sfdfasd
 
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.EnglishCEIPdeSigeiro
 
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptxCapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptxCapitolTechU
 
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17Celine George
 
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptxmary850239
 
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptxCAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptxSaurabhParmar42
 
M-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptx
M-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptxM-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptx
M-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptxDr. Santhosh Kumar. N
 
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptxPatterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptxMYDA ANGELICA SUAN
 
Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.
Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.
Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.raviapr7
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Presentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a Paragraph
Presentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a ParagraphPresentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a Paragraph
Presentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a ParagraphNetziValdelomar1
 
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptxClinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptxraviapr7
 
In - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptx
In - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptxIn - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptx
In - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptxAditiChauhan701637
 
PISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptx
PISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptxPISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptx
PISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptxEduSkills OECD
 
Practical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptx
Practical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptxPractical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptx
Practical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptxKatherine Villaluna
 

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive EducationBenefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
 
UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024
UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024
UKCGE Parental Leave Discussion March 2024
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
 
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptxPrescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
 
The Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice documentThe Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice document
 
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
 
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptxCapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
 
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
 
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
 
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptxCAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
 
M-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptx
M-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptxM-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptx
M-2- General Reactions of amino acids.pptx
 
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptxPatterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
 
Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.
Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.
Drug Information Services- DIC and Sources.
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
 
Presentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a Paragraph
Presentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a ParagraphPresentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a Paragraph
Presentation on the Basics of Writing. Writing a Paragraph
 
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptxClinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
 
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quizFinals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
 
In - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptx
In - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptxIn - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptx
In - Vivo and In - Vitro Correlation.pptx
 
PISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptx
PISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptxPISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptx
PISA-VET launch_El Iza Mohamedou_19 March 2024.pptx
 
Practical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptx
Practical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptxPractical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptx
Practical Research 1 Lesson 9 Scope and delimitation.pptx
 

Research methodoloy

  • 1. Research Methodology An Introduction Dr. S. Parasuraman, M.Pharm., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Unit of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Bedong 08100, Malaysia. Basrelief sculpture "Research holding the torch of knowledge" (1896) by Olin Levi Warner. Library of Congress, Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
  • 2. Aristotle, (384–322 BC), one of the early figures in the development of the scientific method. The research room at the New York Public Library. Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4 November 1869. Feb. 2019 2
  • 3. Topic Learning Outcome • Upon successful completion of this topic, students should be able to: • explain the structure of research, types of research, research approaches, research process, significance of research and criteria of good research. • outline the types of literature and discuss the basic elements of effective literature search with the citations. • describe seven step process of statistical hypothesis testing and level of statistical significance. • outline the functions of ethics committee. Feb. 2019 3
  • 4. Research Research comprises “creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.” -- OECD 2015 -- Frascati Manual 2015 Feb. 2019 4
  • 5. Research Research is….. • Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and causes • A process Research is not….. • Data collection (intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge) • Searching out published research results in libraries Feb. 2019 5
  • 6. Methodology & Method Methodology • The study of the general approach to inquiry in a given field. Method • The specific techniques, tools or procedures applied to achieve a given objective. • Research methods in economics include regression analysis, mathematical analysis, operations research, surveys, data gathering, etc. Feb. 2019 6
  • 7. Objectives of research The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific Procedures. Research objectives as falling into following broad groupings: • To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. • To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. • To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else • To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables Feb. 2019 7
  • 8. General Specific General Introduction 1. Identify problem area and state importance (Field establishment) 2. Review relevant research literature (Description of pervious research) 3. Identify a gap or ‘Research space’ (Specific area for research) 4. State research aim – to fill that gap (Set research question (RQ) and hypothesis) Specific Empirical and original part of your study Method Result & interpretation Discussion 4. Match result with RQ and hypothesis (Confirm) 5. Implication of specific knowledge area 6. Significant of the field 1. Recommendation for further research Conclusion [Reference] Structure of research The Hourglass: a dynamic organisational model Feb. 2019 8
  • 9. Research Process • Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. Feb. 2019 9
  • 10. Types of research • Descriptive vs. Analytical • Applied vs. Fundamental • Quantitative vs. Qualitative • Conceptual vs. Empirical Feb. 2019 10
  • 11. Types of research • Descriptive vs. Analytical – Descriptive research includes surveys and fact- finding enquiries of different kinds. – In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. Feb. 2019 11
  • 12. Types of research • Applied vs. Fundamental – Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Feb. 2019 12
  • 13. Types of research • Quantitative vs. Qualitative – Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. – Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Feb. 2019 13
  • 14. Types of research • Conceptual vs. Empirical – Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. – empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. Feb. 2019 14
  • 15. Research Approaches • Two basic approaches to research are – Quantitative approach • Inferential approaches: Research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population • Experimental approaches: Characterised by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables. • Simulation approaches: Involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated – Qualitative approach: to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Feb. 2019 15
  • 16. Significance of research • Significance of research are – to promote the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation. – to solve various operational and planning problems of business and industry. – to generalisations of new theories. Feb. 2019 16
  • 17. Criteria of good research • The purpose of the research should be clearly. • The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail. • The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. • The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. • Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research. • Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced. Feb. 2019 17
  • 18. Qualities of a good research • Good research is –Systematic –Logical –empirical –replicable Feb. 2019 18
  • 19. Literature search and review Feb. 2019 19
  • 20. Types of literature reviews • Narrative or traditional literature reviews • Scoping reviews • Systematic quantitative literature review • Cochrane reviews • Campbell collaboration Feb. 2019 20
  • 21. Types of literature reviews Narrative or traditional literature reviews: • A narrative or traditional literature review is a comprehensive, critical and objective analysis of the current knowledge on a topic. They are an essential part of the research process and help to establish a theoretical framework and focus or context for your research. • Four common types of narrative reviews are general literature review, theoretical literature review, methodological literature review and historical literature review. Feb. 2019 21 Literature Review: Traditional or narrative literature reviews. Available in https://libguides.csu.edu.au/c.php?g=476545&p=3997199 [Last assessed on 24 Feb. 2019]
  • 22. Types of literature reviews Scoping reviews • A scoping review is not necessarily less work than a systematic review. • A scoping review or scoping study is a form of knowledge synthesis that addresses an exploratory research question aimed at mapping key concepts, types of evidence, and gaps in research related to a defined area or field by systematically searching, selecting, and synthesizing existing knowledge. Feb. 2019 22 Colquhoun, et al. J of Clin Epi. 2014, 67, p. 1292-94
  • 23. Types of literature reviews Systematic quantitative literature review • Method for integrating or comparing the findings from qualitative studies. It looks for ‘themes’ or ‘constructs’ that lie in or across individual qualitative studies. Cochrane reviews • Cochrane Reviews are systematic reviews of primary research in human health care and health policy, and are internationally recognised as the highest standard in evidence-based health care. Feb. 2019 23 https://guides.mclibrary.duke.edu/sysreview/types http://www.evidentlycochrane.net/what-are-cochrane-reviews/
  • 24. Types of literature reviews Campbell collaboration • The Campbell Collaboration is an international volunteer network of policymakers, researchers, practitioners, and consumers who prepare, maintain, and disseminate systematic reviews of studies of interventions in the social and behavioral sciences. Feb. 2019 24 http://ktdrr.org/ktlibrary/articles_pubs/ncddrwork/focus/focus16/
  • 25. Summary of the different types of literature reviews Feb. 2019 25 https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/160506/WEB_What-are-systematic-quantiative-reviews-and-why-use-them-July-2017.pdf
  • 26. Steps in literature review • Literature search • Sorting the literature • Analysing the literature • Comparison • Structure of literature review • Writing the literature review Feb. 2019 26 Pautasso M. Ten simple rules for writing a literature review. PLoS Comput Biol. 2013;9(7):e1003149.
  • 27. Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review • Rule 1: Define a topic and audience • Rule 2: Search and re-search the literature • Rule 3: Take notes while reading • Rule 4: Choose the type of review you wish to write • Rule 5: Keep the review focused, but make it of broad interest • Rule 6: Be critical and consistent • Rule 7: Find a logical structure • Rule 8: Make use of feedback • Rule 9: Include Your own relevant research, but be objective • Rule 10: Be Up-to-Date, but do not forget older studies Feb. 2019 27 Pautasso M. Ten simple rules for writing a literature review. PLoS Comput Biol. 2013;9(7):e1003149.
  • 28. Common errors made in literature reviews • Review isn’t logically organized • Review isn’t focused on most important facets of the study • Review doesn’t relate literature to the study • Too few references or outdated references cited • Review isn’t written in author’s own words • Review reads like a series of disjointed summaries • Review doesn’t argue a point • Recent references are omitted • Plagiarism Feb. 2019 28
  • 30. Research hypothesis A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested to see if it might be true. Feb. 2019 30
  • 31. Research hypothesis • Seven step process of statistical hypothesis testing – Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis – Step 2: State the Alternative Hypothesis – Step 3: Set α – Step 4: Collect Data – Step 5: Calculate a test statistic – Step 6: Construct rejection regions – Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion about H0 Feb. 2019 31
  • 33. Referencing style • A referencing style is a set of rules telling you how to acknowledge the thoughts, ideas and works of others in a particular way. Feb. 2019 33 Abbreviation Full Name ACS American Chemical Society AMA American Medical Association AMJ Academy of Management style APA American Psychological Association Chicago Chicago Manual of Style CSE (CBE) Council of Science Editors/Council of Biology Editors Harvard MLA Modern Language Association of America Vancouver
  • 34. Referencing style - APA • This is the standard style used in Psychology, but it is also widely used in other disciplines, especially in the Social Sciences. It is an author-date style; one of the many variants of the Harvard style. Citing a book • APA format structure: – Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work. Publisher City, State: Publisher. • APA format example: – Finney, J. (1970). Time and again. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. Feb. 2019 34
  • 35. Referencing style - APA Citing a Journal • APA format structure: – Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp.-pp. • APA format example: – Cushnie, T. T., & Lamb, A. J. (2005). Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 26(5), 343-356. Feb. 2019 35
  • 36. Referencing style - Harvard • Harvard Reference List Citations for Books with One Author • Harvard format structure: – Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. Edition. (Only include the edition if it is not the first edition) City published: Publisher, Page(s). • Harvard format example: – Dahl, R. (2004). Charlie and the chocolate factory. 6th ed. New York: Knopf. Feb. 2019 36
  • 37. Referencing style - Harvard • Harvard Reference List Citations for Chapters in Edited Books • Harvard format structure: – Last name, First initial. (Year published). Chapter title. In: First initial. Last name, ed., Book Title, 1st ed.* City: Publisher, Page(s). • Harvard format example: – Bressler, L. (2010). My girl, Kylie. In: L. Matheson, ed., The Dogs That We Love, 1st ed. Boston: Jacobson Ltd., pp. 78-92. Feb. 2019 37
  • 38. Referencing style - Harvard Citing a Journal • Harvard format structure: – Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title. Journal, Volume (Issue), Page(s). • Harvard format example: – Ross, N. (2015). On Truth Content and False Consciousness in Adorno’s Aesthetic Theory. Philosophy Today, 59(2), pp. 269-290. Feb. 2019 38
  • 39. Referencing style - Vancouver style Citing a Journal • Vancouver style format structure: – Last name First initial. Article title. Journal abbreviation. Year published; Volume (Issue): Page(s). • Vancouver style format example: – Younger P. Using the internet to conduct a literature search. Nurs Stand. 2004;19(6); 45-51. Feb. 2019 39
  • 40. General APA Guidelines • The list of references must be on a new page at the end of your text. • The word References should be centered at the top of the page. Do not underline, bold, enlarge or use quotes for the word References. • The reference list must include all references cited in the text of your paper. • The only exceptions to this rule are personal communications and classical works; they are cited in text only and are not included in the Reference list. Feb. 2019 40
  • 41. General APA Guidelines • Abbreviations: o ed. = edition o Ed. or Eds. = Editor(s) o n.d. = no date (for not date of publication) o p. or pp. = Page(s) o Vol. or Vols. = Volume(s) o No. = Number Feb. 2019 41
  • 43. Biomedical ethics Animal ethics • Animal ethics is a term used in academia to describe human–animal relationships and how animals ought to be treated. The subject matter includes animal rights, animal welfare, animal law, speciesism, animal cognition, wildlife conservation, the moral status of nonhuman animals, the concept of nonhuman personhood, human exceptionalism, the history of animal use, and theories of justice. Feb. 2019 43
  • 44. Ethics in research with animals • Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE) • American Psychological Association's (APA's) 2002 Ethics Code – Acquire, care for, use and dispose of animals in compliance with current federal, state and local laws and regulations, and with professional standards. – Ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role. – Make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness and pain of animal subjects. Feb. 2019 44
  • 45. Ethics in research with animals • Ethics in research with animals (Cont.,) – Use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress or privation only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational or applied value. – Perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain during and after surgery. – Proceed rapidly when it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, with an effort to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures. Feb. 2019 45 Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research. Available in https://www.apa.org/science/leadership/care/guidelines [Last assessed on 25 Feb. 2019]
  • 46. Commonly used laboratory animals • Dog • Monkey • Guinea pig • Hamster • Gerbil • Rabbit • Rat • Mouse Feb. 2019 46
  • 47. Biomedical ethics (Human) Feb. 2019 47 Edward Jenner vaccinating James Phipps, a boy of eight, on 14 May 1796. Jenner failed to use a control group.
  • 48. Biomedical ethics Human ethics committee: • Earlier, in the 1900s, there were no regulations regarding the ethical use of human subjects in research. • An ethics committee is a body responsible for ensuring that medical experimentation and human research are carried out in an ethical manner in accordance with national and international law. Feb. 2019 48
  • 49. Biomedical ethics HISTORY: • History of research with human subjects opened on December 9, 1946, when an American military tribunal opened criminal proceedings against 23 leading German physicians and administrators for their willing participation in war crimes and crimes against humanity. • As a direct result of the trial, the Nuremberg Code was established in 1948, stating that ‘The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential,’ making it clear that subjects should give consent and that the benefits of the research must outweigh the risks. Feb. 2019 49 Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
  • 50. Biomedical ethics History: • THE TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY (1932 – 1972) • One of the turning points in the development of a consensus for guidelines for ethical conduct in research was a project conducted by the US Public Health Service. • The study sparked off a wide-scale public outrage when it became publicly known, and the US government had to close it in 1973. Feb. 2019 50 Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
  • 51. Biomedical ethics History: • THE TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY (1932 – 1972) Feb. 2019 51 https://www.thecoli.com/threads/tuskegee-syphilis-experiments-on-blacks-1932-1972.174212/ https://3goodwords.wordpress.com/2015/02/01/black-history-month-the-tuskegee-experiment/comment-page-1/
  • 52. Biomedical ethics Feb. 2019 52 • The Nazi Medical War Crimes • Dachau • Execution of Dachau SS • Eisenhower at Ohrdruf • War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg • The Nuremberg Trial • The Tuskegee Syphilis Study • Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study • Willowbrook Study • Cincinnati Radiation Experiments • The Radioactive Milk Study • The Belmont Report
  • 53. Biomedical ethics THE BELMONT REPORT: • The Belmont Report was published in 1979, with attempts to summarize the basic ethical principles identified by the Commission in the course of its deliberations. The Report is a statement of the basic ethical principles and guidelines that should assist in resolving the ethical problems that surround the conduct of research with human subjects. Feb. 2019 53 Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
  • 54. Biomedical ethics THE BELMONT REPORT (1979): Feb. 2019 54 Three basic ethical principles (Respect for persons, Beneficence, Justice) and their corresponding applications according to the Belmont report: Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
  • 55. Biomedical ethics Declaration of Helsinki: • The Declaration of Helsinki is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association (WMA). Feb. 2019 55
  • 56. Biomedical ethics The Declaration of Helsinki: • In 1964, the World Medical Association established recommendations guiding medical doctors in biomedical research involving human subjects. • Issues addressed in the declaration of Helsinki includes: – Research with humans should be based on the results from laboratory and animal experimentation – Research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee prior to initiation – Informed consent from research participants is necessary – Research should be conducted by medically / scientifically qualified individuals – Risks should not exceed benefits Feb. 2019 56 Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.
  • 57. Biomedical ethics • Declaration of Helsinki: Feb. 2019 57 Seventh revision (2013) First revision (1975) The Declaration was originally adopted in June 1964 in Helsinki, Finland
  • 58. Biomedical ethics General Principles Declaration of Helsinki: • The Declaration of Geneva of the WMA binds the physician with the words, “The health of my patient will be my first consideration,” and the International Code of Medical Ethics declares that, “A physician shall act in the patient’s best interest when providing medical care.” • It is the duty of the physician to promote and safeguard the health, well-being and rights of patients Feb. 2019 58
  • 59. Biomedical ethics General Principles Declaration of Helsinki: • The primary purpose of medical research involving human subjects is to understand the causes, development and effects of diseases and improve preventive, diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. • Medical research is subject to ethical standards that promote and ensure respect for all human subjects and protect their health and rights. • Primary purpose of medical research is to generate new knowledge, this goal can never take precedence over the rights and interests of individual research subjects. Feb. 2019 59
  • 60. Biomedical ethics General Principles Declaration of Helsinki: • It is the duty of physicians who are involved in medical research to protect the life, health, dignity, integrity, right to self-determination, privacy, and confidentiality of personal information of research subjects. • Physicians must consider the ethical, legal and regulatory norms and standards for research involving human subjects in their own countries as well as applicable international norms and standards. Feb. 2019 60 https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/
  • 61. Biomedical ethics National Medical Research Register (NMRR): • The NMRR is a web-based service initiated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) of the Ministry of Health (MOH). • It is a web based tool designed to support the implementation of the National Institute of Health (NIH) guideline on the conduct of research in the Ministry of Health Malaysia (MOH) Feb. 2019 61
  • 62. Biomedical ethics National Medical Research Register (NMRR): • Current MOH policy on research – Registration of all research that involves MOH personnel OR that is to be conducted in MOH facility OR to be funded by MOH research grant – Review & approval of the research by a designated entity to whom authority has been delegated for the purpose – In addition, research involving human subjects requires prior review and approval by the MOH Research and Ethics Committee (MREC) – Approval of all research publications, whether in the form of research report, journal article or conference proceeding, by the NIH initially and thereafter by the Director General of MOH Feb. 2019 62
  • 63. Biomedical ethics COMMON RULE (Human ethics): • The main elements of the Common Rule include: – requirements for assuring compliance by research institutions – requirements for researchers obtaining and documenting informed consent – requirements for Institutional Review Board (IRB) membership, function, operations, review of research, and record keeping – additional protection for certain vulnerable research subjects – pregnant women, prisoners, and children Feb. 2019 63 Mandal J, Acharya S, Parija SC. Ethics in human research. Trop Parasitol. 2011 Jan;1(1):2-3.

Hinweis der Redaktion

  1. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  2. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  3. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  4. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  5. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  6. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  7. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  8. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  9. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  10. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  11. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  12. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  13. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  14. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  15. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm
  16. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm