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Chapter 8


Harvesting
 Energy
Chapter 8 2
   Overview of Glucose Breakdown
The overall equation for the complete
 breakdown of glucose is:
  C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

The main stages of glucose metabolism
 are:
  • Glycolysis
  • Cellular respiration
Chapter 8 3
Chapter 8 4
     Overview of Glucose Breakdown


Glycolysis
 •   Occurs in the cytosol
 •   Does not require oxygen
 •   Breaks glucose into pyruvate
 •   Yields two molecules of ATP per molecule
     of glucose
Chapter 8 5
   Overview of Glucose Breakdown

If oxygen is absent fermentation occurs
  • pyruvate is converted into either lactate, or
    into ethanol and CO2
If oxygen is present cellular respiration
  occurs…
Chapter 8 6
   Overview of Glucose Breakdown

Cellular respiration
  • Occurs in mitochondria (in eukaryotes)
  • Requires oxygen
  • Breaks down pyruvate into carbon dioxide
    and water
  • Produces an additional 32 or 34 ATP
    molecules, depending on the cell type
Chapter 8 7
   Glycolysis


Overview of the two major phases of
   glycolysis
• Glucose activation phase
• Energy harvesting phase
Chapter 8 8
   Glycolysis

Glucose activation phase
  • Glucose molecule converted to highly
    reactive fructose bisphosphate by two
    enzyme-catalyzed reactions, using 2
    ATPs
Chapter 8 9
     Essentials of Glycolysis (a)
                                     Glucose-6-
                 ATP      ADP
                                P    Phosphate
    Glucose
CCCCCC                          CCCCCC



    Glucose-6-                      Fructose-1,6-
P                               P
    Phosphate                       Bisphosphate
CCCCCC                          CCCCCC
                                               P
                 ATP      ADP
Chapter 8 10
   Glycolysis
Energy harvesting phase
  • Fructose bisphosphate is split into two
    three-carbon molecules of glyceraldehyde
    3-phosphate (G3P)
  • In a series of reactions, each G3P
    molecule is converted into a pyruvate,
    generating two ATPs per conversion, for
    a total of four ATPs
  • Because two ATPs were used to activate
    the glucose molecule there is a net gain
    of two ATPs per glucose molecule
Chapter 8 11
Essentials of Glycolysis (b)
              Fructose-1,6-
          P   Bisphosphate
          CCCCCC
                       P

     P
                       CCC
     CCC
                              P

     CCC               CCC
                G3P
       P                      P
Chapter 8 12
   Glycolysis

Energy harvesting phase (continued)
  • As each G3P is converted to pyruvate,
    two high-energy electrons and a
    hydrogen ion are added to an “empty”
    electron-carrier NAD+ to make the high-
    energy electron-carrier molecule NADH
  • Because two G3P molecules are
    produced per glucose molecule, two
    NADH carrier molecules are formed
Chapter 8 13
      Essentials of Glycolysis (c)
            CCC             CCC
                     G3P
Pi                                           Pi
              P                  P
     NAD+                               NAD+

     NADH                               NADH
            CCC             CCC
              P
            P               P    P
      ADP                              ADP
      ADP                              ADP

     ATP                               ATP
     ATP                               ATP
            C C C Pyruvates C C C
Chapter 8 14
   Glycolysis


Summary of glycolysis:
  • Each molecule of glucose is broken down
    to two molecules of pyruvate
  • A net of two ATP molecules and two
    NADH (high-energy electron carriers) are
    formed
Chapter 8 15
Fermentation of Dough
Chapter 8 16
   Fermentation
Pyruvate is processed differently under
   aerobic and anaerobic conditions
Under aerobic conditions, the high
   energy electrons in NADH produced in
   glycolysis are ferried to ATP-
   generating reactions in the
   mitochondria, making NAD+ available
   to recycle in glycolysis
Chapter 8 17
   Fermentation
Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is
   converted into lactate or ethanol, a
   process called fermentation
Fermentation does not produce more
   ATP, but is necessary to regenerate
   the high-energy electron carrier
   molecule NAD+, which must be
   available for glycolysis to continue
Chapter 8 18
  Fermentation

Some microbes ferment pyruvate to other
 acids (as seen in making of cheese,
 yogurt, sour cream)
Some microbes perform fermentation
 exclusively (instead of aerobic
 respiration)
Yeast cells perform alcoholic fermentation
Chapter 8 19
    Alcoholic Fermentation
                                                    O
                                                C           O
                                                    O   C
                                                            O
                                        NAD
           NAD     NADH         NADH        +
              +

                                        NAD+
           NAD+    NADH         NADH


                          CCC                   CC
                                  Alcoholic
             Glycolysis
CCCCCC
                                Fermentation C C
Glucoses                CCC
                      Pyruvates             Ethanols
           ADP      ATP
           ADP      ATP
Chapter 8 20
  Fermentation
Some cells ferment pyruvate to form
 acids
Human muscle cells can perform
 fermentation
  • Anaerobic conditions produced when
    muscles use up O2 faster than it can be
    delivered (e.g. while sprinting)
  • Lactate (lactic acid) produced from
    pyruvate
Chapter 8 21
    Lactate Fermentation

           NAD+    NADH         NADH   NAD+
           NAD+    NADH         NADH   NAD+


                          CCC                 CCC
                                   Lactate
             Glycolysis
CCCCCC
                                Fermentation C C C
Glucoses                CCC
                      Pyruvates             Lactates
           ADP      ATP
           ADP      ATP
Chapter 8 22
    Cellular Respiration
In eukaryotic cells, cellular respiration occurs
    within mitochondria, organelles with two
    membranes that produce two
    compartments
   • The inner membrane encloses a central
      compartment containing the fluid matrix
   • The outer membrane surrounds the
      organelle, producing an intermembrane
      space
Chapter 8 23
    A Mitochondrion One of Its
                      Mitochondria
                  a
                                            b
  A Cell

           A Crista
      Outer
     & Inner
 Membranes            c
Intermembrane             Matrix
 Compartment
Chapter 8 24
   Cellular Respiration

Overview of Aerobic Cellular
   Respiration:
Glucose is first broken down into
   pyruvate, through glycolysis, in the
   cell cytoplasm
Pyruvate is transported into the
   mitochondrion (eukaryotes) and split
   into CO2 and a 2 carbon acetyl group
Chapter 8 25
   Cellular Respiration

The acetyl group is further broken down
   into CO2 in the Krebs Cycle (matrix
   space) as electron carriers are loaded
Electron carriers loaded up in glycolysis
   and the Krebs Cycle give up
   electrons to the electron transport
   chain (ETC) along the inner
   mitochondrial membrane
Chapter 8 26
  Cellular Respiration

A hydrogen ion gradient produced by the
   ETC is used to make ATP
   (chemiosmosis)
ATP is transported out of the
   mitochondrion to provide energy for
   cellular activities
Chapter 8 27


Cellular
Respiration
Chapter 8 28
 Pyruvate Breakdown in Mitochondria


After glycolysis, pyruvate diffuses into
   the mitochondrion into the matrix
   space
Pyruvate is split into CO2 and a 2-carbon
   acetyl group, generating 1 NADH per
   pyruvate
Chapter 8 29
  Pyruvate Breakdown in Mitochondria


Acetyl group is carried by a helper
  molecule called Coenzyme A, now
  called Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle and is
  broken down into CO2
Chapter 8 30
Pyruvate Breakdown in Mitochondria


Electron carriers NAD+ and FAD are
   loaded with electrons to produce 3
   NADH & 1 FADH2 per Acetyl CoA
6. One ATP also made per Acetyl CoA
   in the Krebs Cycle
Chapter 8 31
 Formation of Acetyl CoA
 O                                       O
     C                               C
         CCC      Pyruvates C C C
 O                                       O

NAD+                                     NAD+

NADH                                     NADH
         CCC               CCC
 CoA                                CoA


       CoA                        CoA
             C C Acetyl CoA C C
Chapter 8 32
               Krebs Cycle: Summary
CoA                                                                          CoA
                 CoA                                          CoA
                                 C C Acetyl CoA C C
                                                         1
                 C                                              C
               CCCCC                                          CCCCC
O                                                                                     O
                                     CCCC   CCCC
    C                                                                             C
                        NAD                                  NAD
                           +                                    +

O                                                                                     O
                        NADH                                 NADH
                                                                            2     3
                           NADH
                                                   NADH                  C
         CCCCC                                                         CCCCC
                              NAD+
                                                   NAD+
                                       H2O H2O   567
NAD+                                                                         NAD+
                          FADH2
                O                                                      O
                                                   FADH2
NADH                                                                         NADH
                    C                                              C
                               FAD
                O                                                      O
                                                   FAD
ADP                                                                          ADP

ATP                                                                          ATP
                                                                    4
                               CCCC              CCCCC
        H 2O                                                               H 2O
Chapter 8 33
 Electron Transport Chain


Most of the energy in glucose is stored
 in electron carriers NADH and FADH2
  • Only 4 total ATP produced per glucose
    after complete breakdown in the Krebs
    Cycle
Chapter 8 34
 Electron Transport Chain


NADH and FADH2 deposit electrons into
 electron transport chains in the inner
 mitochondrial membrane
Electrons join with oxygen gas and
 hydrogen ions to made H2O at the end
 of the ETCs
Chapter 8 35
Mitochondrial
Electron Transport System
Chapter 8 36
  Chemiosmosis

Energy is released from electrons as they
   are passed down the electron
   transport chain
Released energy used to pump hydrogen
   ions across the inner membrane
  • Hydrogen ions accumulate in
    intermembrane space
Chapter 8 37
  Chemiosmosis


Hydrogen ions form a concentration
  gradient across the membrane, a form
  of stored energy
Hydrogen ions flow back into the matrix
  through an ATP synthesizing enzyme
  • Process is called chemiosmosis
Chapter 8 38
  Chemiosmosis


Flow of hydrogen ions provides energy
   to link 32-34 molecules of ADP with
   phosphate, forming 32-34 ATP
ATP then diffuses out of mitochondrion
   and used for energy-requiring
   activities in the cell
Chapter 8 39
Mitochondrial
Chemiosmosis (1)
Chapter 8 40
Mitochondrial
Chemiosmosis (2)
Chapter 8 41
Mitochondrial
Chemiosmosis (3)
Chapter 8 42
  Influence on How Organisms Function


Metabolic processes in cells are heavily
 dependent on ATP generation (cyanide
 kills by preventing this)
Muscle cells switch between fermentation
 and aerobic cell respiration depending
 on O2 availability
Chapter 8 43


Energy Harvested
from Glucose
Chapter 8 44
     Energy Harvested from Glucose
                                Glucose
(Cytoplasm)
                                                   4 ATP
                              Glycolysis
                 2 ATP
                                 2 Pyruvates
                         2 NADH
(Mitochondrial                               2 CO2
                         2 NADH
    Matrix)
                                   Krebs      4 CO2
                         6 NADH
                                   Cycle
                         2 FADH2
                                                    2 ATP


  (Inner
Membrane)                                  Water
                   Electron Transport
                         System
       Oxygen                                32 ATP
Chapter 8



The end

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AP Bio Ch 8 PowerPoint

  • 2. Chapter 8 2 Overview of Glucose Breakdown The overall equation for the complete breakdown of glucose is: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP The main stages of glucose metabolism are: • Glycolysis • Cellular respiration
  • 4. Chapter 8 4 Overview of Glucose Breakdown Glycolysis • Occurs in the cytosol • Does not require oxygen • Breaks glucose into pyruvate • Yields two molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose
  • 5. Chapter 8 5 Overview of Glucose Breakdown If oxygen is absent fermentation occurs • pyruvate is converted into either lactate, or into ethanol and CO2 If oxygen is present cellular respiration occurs…
  • 6. Chapter 8 6 Overview of Glucose Breakdown Cellular respiration • Occurs in mitochondria (in eukaryotes) • Requires oxygen • Breaks down pyruvate into carbon dioxide and water • Produces an additional 32 or 34 ATP molecules, depending on the cell type
  • 7. Chapter 8 7 Glycolysis Overview of the two major phases of glycolysis • Glucose activation phase • Energy harvesting phase
  • 8. Chapter 8 8 Glycolysis Glucose activation phase • Glucose molecule converted to highly reactive fructose bisphosphate by two enzyme-catalyzed reactions, using 2 ATPs
  • 9. Chapter 8 9 Essentials of Glycolysis (a) Glucose-6- ATP ADP P Phosphate Glucose CCCCCC CCCCCC Glucose-6- Fructose-1,6- P P Phosphate Bisphosphate CCCCCC CCCCCC P ATP ADP
  • 10. Chapter 8 10 Glycolysis Energy harvesting phase • Fructose bisphosphate is split into two three-carbon molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) • In a series of reactions, each G3P molecule is converted into a pyruvate, generating two ATPs per conversion, for a total of four ATPs • Because two ATPs were used to activate the glucose molecule there is a net gain of two ATPs per glucose molecule
  • 11. Chapter 8 11 Essentials of Glycolysis (b) Fructose-1,6- P Bisphosphate CCCCCC P P CCC CCC P CCC CCC G3P P P
  • 12. Chapter 8 12 Glycolysis Energy harvesting phase (continued) • As each G3P is converted to pyruvate, two high-energy electrons and a hydrogen ion are added to an “empty” electron-carrier NAD+ to make the high- energy electron-carrier molecule NADH • Because two G3P molecules are produced per glucose molecule, two NADH carrier molecules are formed
  • 13. Chapter 8 13 Essentials of Glycolysis (c) CCC CCC G3P Pi Pi P P NAD+ NAD+ NADH NADH CCC CCC P P P P ADP ADP ADP ADP ATP ATP ATP ATP C C C Pyruvates C C C
  • 14. Chapter 8 14 Glycolysis Summary of glycolysis: • Each molecule of glucose is broken down to two molecules of pyruvate • A net of two ATP molecules and two NADH (high-energy electron carriers) are formed
  • 16. Chapter 8 16 Fermentation Pyruvate is processed differently under aerobic and anaerobic conditions Under aerobic conditions, the high energy electrons in NADH produced in glycolysis are ferried to ATP- generating reactions in the mitochondria, making NAD+ available to recycle in glycolysis
  • 17. Chapter 8 17 Fermentation Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted into lactate or ethanol, a process called fermentation Fermentation does not produce more ATP, but is necessary to regenerate the high-energy electron carrier molecule NAD+, which must be available for glycolysis to continue
  • 18. Chapter 8 18 Fermentation Some microbes ferment pyruvate to other acids (as seen in making of cheese, yogurt, sour cream) Some microbes perform fermentation exclusively (instead of aerobic respiration) Yeast cells perform alcoholic fermentation
  • 19. Chapter 8 19 Alcoholic Fermentation O C O O C O NAD NAD NADH NADH + + NAD+ NAD+ NADH NADH CCC CC Alcoholic Glycolysis CCCCCC Fermentation C C Glucoses CCC Pyruvates Ethanols ADP ATP ADP ATP
  • 20. Chapter 8 20 Fermentation Some cells ferment pyruvate to form acids Human muscle cells can perform fermentation • Anaerobic conditions produced when muscles use up O2 faster than it can be delivered (e.g. while sprinting) • Lactate (lactic acid) produced from pyruvate
  • 21. Chapter 8 21 Lactate Fermentation NAD+ NADH NADH NAD+ NAD+ NADH NADH NAD+ CCC CCC Lactate Glycolysis CCCCCC Fermentation C C C Glucoses CCC Pyruvates Lactates ADP ATP ADP ATP
  • 22. Chapter 8 22 Cellular Respiration In eukaryotic cells, cellular respiration occurs within mitochondria, organelles with two membranes that produce two compartments • The inner membrane encloses a central compartment containing the fluid matrix • The outer membrane surrounds the organelle, producing an intermembrane space
  • 23. Chapter 8 23 A Mitochondrion One of Its Mitochondria a b A Cell A Crista Outer & Inner Membranes c Intermembrane Matrix Compartment
  • 24. Chapter 8 24 Cellular Respiration Overview of Aerobic Cellular Respiration: Glucose is first broken down into pyruvate, through glycolysis, in the cell cytoplasm Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondrion (eukaryotes) and split into CO2 and a 2 carbon acetyl group
  • 25. Chapter 8 25 Cellular Respiration The acetyl group is further broken down into CO2 in the Krebs Cycle (matrix space) as electron carriers are loaded Electron carriers loaded up in glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle give up electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC) along the inner mitochondrial membrane
  • 26. Chapter 8 26 Cellular Respiration A hydrogen ion gradient produced by the ETC is used to make ATP (chemiosmosis) ATP is transported out of the mitochondrion to provide energy for cellular activities
  • 28. Chapter 8 28 Pyruvate Breakdown in Mitochondria After glycolysis, pyruvate diffuses into the mitochondrion into the matrix space Pyruvate is split into CO2 and a 2-carbon acetyl group, generating 1 NADH per pyruvate
  • 29. Chapter 8 29 Pyruvate Breakdown in Mitochondria Acetyl group is carried by a helper molecule called Coenzyme A, now called Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle and is broken down into CO2
  • 30. Chapter 8 30 Pyruvate Breakdown in Mitochondria Electron carriers NAD+ and FAD are loaded with electrons to produce 3 NADH & 1 FADH2 per Acetyl CoA 6. One ATP also made per Acetyl CoA in the Krebs Cycle
  • 31. Chapter 8 31 Formation of Acetyl CoA O O C C CCC Pyruvates C C C O O NAD+ NAD+ NADH NADH CCC CCC CoA CoA CoA CoA C C Acetyl CoA C C
  • 32. Chapter 8 32 Krebs Cycle: Summary CoA CoA CoA CoA C C Acetyl CoA C C 1 C C CCCCC CCCCC O O CCCC CCCC C C NAD NAD + + O O NADH NADH 2 3 NADH NADH C CCCCC CCCCC NAD+ NAD+ H2O H2O 567 NAD+ NAD+ FADH2 O O FADH2 NADH NADH C C FAD O O FAD ADP ADP ATP ATP 4 CCCC CCCCC H 2O H 2O
  • 33. Chapter 8 33 Electron Transport Chain Most of the energy in glucose is stored in electron carriers NADH and FADH2 • Only 4 total ATP produced per glucose after complete breakdown in the Krebs Cycle
  • 34. Chapter 8 34 Electron Transport Chain NADH and FADH2 deposit electrons into electron transport chains in the inner mitochondrial membrane Electrons join with oxygen gas and hydrogen ions to made H2O at the end of the ETCs
  • 36. Chapter 8 36 Chemiosmosis Energy is released from electrons as they are passed down the electron transport chain Released energy used to pump hydrogen ions across the inner membrane • Hydrogen ions accumulate in intermembrane space
  • 37. Chapter 8 37 Chemiosmosis Hydrogen ions form a concentration gradient across the membrane, a form of stored energy Hydrogen ions flow back into the matrix through an ATP synthesizing enzyme • Process is called chemiosmosis
  • 38. Chapter 8 38 Chemiosmosis Flow of hydrogen ions provides energy to link 32-34 molecules of ADP with phosphate, forming 32-34 ATP ATP then diffuses out of mitochondrion and used for energy-requiring activities in the cell
  • 42. Chapter 8 42 Influence on How Organisms Function Metabolic processes in cells are heavily dependent on ATP generation (cyanide kills by preventing this) Muscle cells switch between fermentation and aerobic cell respiration depending on O2 availability
  • 43. Chapter 8 43 Energy Harvested from Glucose
  • 44. Chapter 8 44 Energy Harvested from Glucose Glucose (Cytoplasm) 4 ATP Glycolysis 2 ATP 2 Pyruvates 2 NADH (Mitochondrial 2 CO2 2 NADH Matrix) Krebs 4 CO2 6 NADH Cycle 2 FADH2 2 ATP (Inner Membrane) Water Electron Transport System Oxygen 32 ATP