Steel Space Frame Roofs

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING & DESIGN
BACHELOR OF QUANTITY SURVEYING (HONS)
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III
[BLD 60304]
STEEL SPACE FRAME ROOF
DOUBLE/ TRIPLE LAYERS
NAME STUDENT I.D
Eric Wee Hiong Kiet 0329601
Lim Xiao Shi 0324410
Loh Wei Ting 0328314
Melvin Tan Teng Hung 0324938
LECTURER: Ir Chai Voon Chiet
Word count: 2344

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Taylor’s University| Construction Technology III| Steel Space Frame Roof
Content
1.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………….. 2 – 5
2.0 ErectionMethod …………………………………………………... 6 – 7
3.0 Advantages ………………………………………………………… 8
4.0 Disadvantages ……………………………………………………... 9
5.0 Overseas Case Study: Eden Project ……………………………... 10 – 17
6.0 LocalCase Study: Shah Alam Sports Complex …………………. 18 – 21
7.0 Reference……………………………………………………………. 22 – 23

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1.0 Introduction
Referring to the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), a space
frame is defined as a structural system, where linear elements are assembled in a way that loads are
transferred in a three-dimensional manner. Space frame, a truss-like, lightweight yet rigid structure,
in its simplest form, is constructed with interlocking struts, arranged geometrically.
Space frame is strong, inheriting the rigidity that a triangle provides. Flexing loads, also
known as bending moments are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of
each strut of this tetrahedron unit. This triangular unit, when joints are rigidly connecter, bending
moment and shear forces are transferred in addition to axial forces. Upper chords supports
compression while the lower chord holds the tension.
1.1 Types
Generally, steel space frame roof can be classified according to its curvature and number of
grid layers.
CURVATURE
FLAT COVERS
Figure 1: Industria de
Turbopropulsores (ITP), Spain
BARREL VAULTS
Figure 2: Tirumailai MRTS
station, India
SPEHERICAL DOMES
Figure 3: Exhibition hall at Pragati
Maidan, India
Planes are channelled through
the horizontal bars and the
shear forces are supported by
the diagonals
Has a cross section of a
simple arch
Requires the use of tetrahedral
modules or pyramids and
additional support from skin

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LAYERS
SINGLE LAYER DOUBLE LAYER TRIPLE LAYER
All elements are arranged
and located on the single
surface.
Two parallel layers are connected at a
certain distance.
Diagonal bars are present to connect
the nodes of both layers in different
direction, creating space in between.
Three parallel layers are
connected at certain
distance.
1.2 Frame Components
1.2.1 Members
Axial elements of circular or rectangular sections. Space grid built of long tension members
and short compression members and is usually left exposed as part of architecture expression.
Figure 4: Circular Hollow
Section (CHS)
Figure 5: Rectangular
Hollow Section (RHS)

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1.2.2 Nodes/Connectors
Tuball Nodal Connector, a hollow
sphere to be connected
Octatube node connector, octagonal
base plate welded to two semi-octagonal
plates at 90 degree
Triodetic connector, usually of
aluminium extrusion hub
Hemispherical Dome connector, for
double layer dome by silting end of tube
with joint fit.

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1.3 Uses of Application (Building examples)
Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre,
Baku
Houston Astrodome,
Texas
Stadium Negara,
Kuala Lumpur
ShenZhen International Airport London Stansted Airport Rogers Centre, Toronto
Biosphere 2, Arizona Eden Project, Cornwall Shah Alam Sports Complex

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2.0 ErectionMethod
2.1 Element and Block Erection
Element erection involved division into individual strips, acting as single unit members that are
assembled individually. Block erection divides space frame into blocks, employing sub-assemblies
of large blocks connected by a crane which will later hoist them up into their final position.
Fabricated on the ground level, scaffold or temporary supports is required in order to
assemble them on their actual elevation. Adjacent blocks are attached by construction workers on
suitable scaffolding or temporary supports, and the process will be carrying out in this way until the
space frame is in position.
2.2 Lift-up Method
The whole roof structure is being assembled completely at ground level before being lifted up to the
desired level, usually by a hydraulic jack. Short and medium span space frame can be hoisted up by
several cranes while large span structures require temporary posts as the supports and electric winches
as the lifting power.
In case of working near runways where aviation code makes use of cranes and winches are
limited, lift-up would be associated with temporary wires, set-up between edges of structure and wires
pulled by winches to control roof deformation.
Figure 6: Block erection
method
Figure 7: Large block lifted by
crane

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2.3 ScaffoldMethod
Fixed scaffoldings which cover the entire area are usually required as individual elements, members
and joints or prefabricated subassemblies are assembled in place directly on their final position.
Sometimes if the cantilever erection of space frame can be executed, partial scaffoldings will be
involved. In this case, the elements are fabricated at the shop and transported to construction site, and
no heavy lifting equipment is required.
Movable scaffold in the form of tower is usually laden with a number of wheels and motors
which enable them moving on rails, changing position according to the progress of the job. It
minimizes the amount of scaffold used for large roof structures. However, studies including computer
simulations need to be carried out to study the location of temporary supports and the amounts and
size of movable scaffold to be used.
Figure 10: Scaffold Method (fixed scaffold)
Figure 8: Lift-up method Figure 9: Lift up by crane

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3.0 Advantages
1. Resistant to fire
Able to resist extreme heat. As steel is a non-combustible and fire-resistant material, it retains
its strength at a much higher temperature than a timber frame.
2. Wide, clear column-free space
Ideal for column-free spans, long cantilever and irregular support spacing. The economy of
this system arises from its ability to optimize the member sizes to suit the structural
requirements.
3. Capacity for any loading
Its framing is custom designed to support any specific distributed, concentrated or
unbalanced loading.
4. Economical enhancement
Office buildings at industrial complex have been visually enhanced and increases its capital
value through relatively low-cost addition of decorative and functional entrance canopy.
Useful floor space can be added to existing building by enclosing areas between buildings.
5. Services contained within frame
Allows ducting, fire water supply, lighting and all building service line to be supported and
located within frame.
6. Versatility & flexibility
Increasing or decreasing the surface area of an implemented space structure from any side
while keeping former structure and following design tips is possible with minimal cost.
7. Aesthetic value
Architecturally attractive and unique simplicity making it suitable for wide variety of
applications, even in building facades.

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4.0 Disadvantages
1. Heavy and difficult to move
It is a heavy material, thus when it is pre-fabricated off-site in large size, long trailer or truck
is needed for transportation. Heavy machinery is needed to lift the structure members for
installation.
2. Difficult and complicated manufacture
Steel manufacturing involves chemical processes and quality control is needed to ensure steel
is produced within required quality.
3. Details in designing member structure
Difficulty in engineering the design of frame components. It could not be straightforwardly
determined on how the force distributes the loads throughout the structure that has a lot of
redundant pieces.

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5.0 OverseasCaseStudy: Eden Project, Cornwall
General Information
Building: Multiple Greenhouse Complex
Location: Cornwall, United Kingdom
Size: 23,000 square metre
Construction time: 2 ½ years
Completion: March 2001
Cost: then £86 million
Designteam:
Architect: Nicholas Grimshaw
Structural Engineer: Anthony Hunt and Associates
Main Contractor: McAlpine Joint Venture
Structural Background
Space frame: Double layer geodesic dome
Total surface: 39.54 m2
Total steel weight: 700 tonnes
Shapes: 625 hexagons, 16 pentagons & 190 triangles
Hexagon diameter: 5 – 11 metres
Column free area: Warm Temperature Biome (WTB): 15590m2
Humid Tropics Biome (HTB): 6540m2
Nodes: 4,000 numbers
Members: 7,545 numbers

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5.1 Structural
Idea 1: Arches and purlins.
Disadvantage:
1. High steel weight
2. Small glass elements blocks sunlight
3. Difficult to fit to varying natural
surface of clay pit
Idea 2: Single layered dome with hexagonal
geometry
Disadvantage:
1. Not economical
2. Deformation too large
Final idea: Geodesic double layer space frame
dome
Advantage:
1. Column free space
2. Maximum sunlight intake
3. Geodesic structure able to conform to
expanding and contracting of clayey soil

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As said by Tony Hunt, the appointed structural engineer, the first challenge was the nature of the
ground; clayey quarry. In early design stage, the land and foundation line on this 600 year-old China
clay-pit was constantly shifting due to the ongoing mining process.
Figure 11: Soap bubbles
Architect Nicholas Grimshaw, inspired by series of soap bubbles, came up with this
indigenous hex-tri-hex structure. Bubbles adjust to the surface they land on and when two or more
series of bubbled connects, the line of join is always perpendicular.
Figure 12: Sphere scheme roof
Using that concept, build in a sphere and embedded on ground, the sphere can be ‘cut’
depending on the ground level. This enables changes of either moving up or down from the sphere
scheme.

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5.2 Geodesicdouble layer space frame dome
Figure 13 & 14: Construction before & after
Geodesic dome is a spherical space frame, transferring loads to its support from a network of
linear elements arranged in spherical dome. Though the whole structure resembles a semi-sphere, the
entire structure is built from straight planes with straight edges. Loads are transferred to support
points by axial forces; tension and compression.
Figure 15 & 16: Interior & exterior of Hex-Tri-Hex net
The structural network are of two concentric spherical networks, with a certain radius
difference between them. Diagonal struts are connected, creating a double layer three-dimensional
load carrying network. This hex-tri-hex dome is reliant on two layers, outer skin is a hexagonal,
some pentagonal framework (Hex- Net) and inner layer are made of triangular and hexagonal grid (-
Tri- Hex Net).

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Hexagonal
Figure 17: Hexagonal framework
Hexagonal domes divides their struts into:
a. Large, strong struts that forms the hexagonal shells and provides primary weight-bearing
support for dome
b. Narrow, lighter truss that provides stability for dome
Reasons for using hexagonal framework comparing to conventional triangular framework:
1. Thickness
Eden Project significant exterior is of thin geodesic dome. Converting a conventional
triangular geodesic dome to a hexagonal dome reduce about two third of struts, maintaining
same volume.
2. Big domes
Domes of larger span with higher strength to weight ratio can be built as it uses strong
weight-bearing outer connectors and lighter inner stabilising connectors.
3. Strength
Evenly distributed strength across surface of hexagonal domes as triangular domes
concentrates more at hubs
4. Smooth surface
Triangular domes presents challenges when roofing of smooth surfaces due to its corners

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5.3 Nodes & Tubes
Top chord connections:
a. Rigid connection for three circular hollow sections (CHS) tubes of 193mm diameter
b. Hinged connection for diagonal struts to bottom chord
c. Top exposed surface is even with tubes, enabling cladding over it
MERO NK-Bowl node:
a. Made of cast iron (GGG40) and galvanized for corrosion protection
b. Weight about 80kg
c. Diameter of 400mm
Top chord beams:
a. CHS tube diameter of 193.7mm
b. Ends are cut rectangular and fixed to nodes
c. High pre-stressed bolts (M27 & M36) used to connect beams to bowl nodes
d. Bolt M16 fix beam in right position & transfer torsional moments

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Bottom chord & diagonals:
a. CHS tube diameter between 76.1mm and 168.3mm
b. Buckling length limited to 180
5.4 ConstructionTechnology
Erectionmethod
The most basic hexagonal structure is not stable. It is stiff but difficult to support until they are all in
place.

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Step 1: Setting the Guinness World Book of Records, a birdcage scaffolding of 60 metres high and
125 metres across was set up for erection as temporary support.
Step 2: Hexagons were put together on ground and then lifted up by mobile crane and tower cranes
on larger domes in the HTB, starting from dome A of HTB to dome H of WTB.
Step 3: Bolting of hexagon structure.
Step 4: Scaffolding removed after erection.

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6.0 LocalCase Study: Shah Alam Sports Complex, Selangor
General Information
Location: Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Size: 155,000 square feet
Capacity: 80,000 people
Construction cost: RM480 million
Construction begin: 1st January 1990
Construction time: 4 years
DesignTeam
Owner: State Government of Selangor
Architect: Hijjaz Kasturi Associates Sdn.Bhd, German firms of Weidleplan and Consulting GmbH,
and Schlaich, Bergermann and Partners
Structural Background
Space frame: USSP Unistrut space frame roof
Arc length: 284m
Cantilevered from the back: 69m
Shape: Crescent shape (generated from cut section of circular cylinder)
Type of tube: Cold-form high strength structural tubing
Tubes: Local buckling of tubes
Column buckling of tubes
Nodes: 5556
Members: 21550

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6.1 Structural
Unistrut Space Frame Roof
Unistrut is a series of threaded road and metal channel used to form a ceiling-mounted support
structure for anything, to injectors, to overhead system components.
Unistrut Features
It consists of a large chamfer in nut ease starting of bolt. A special shaped in turned edges and
tapered, serrated grooves produce strong vice-like grip between channel and nut.
6.2 Double Layer BarrelVault
The stadium constructed of two graceful arches, each measuring 284m, making it one of the
longest free-standing arches in the world, enclosing 70% of interior. A double layer barrel vault
space frame is utilized but incorporated with a triple layer at the front arc to preserve an arch action
for effective load distribution.

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Support
Each of the two space-frames is supported in the back by prestressed concrete cantilever
beams at 16 locations, and each side is supported by a prestressed concrete buttress at 8 locations.
Stiffness and maximum reactions at supports were established a priori, and space-frame design has to
satisfy these requirements.
6.3 Connectors
Each module consists of cold-formed steel tubes bolted into spherical steel nodes to form a
rectangle-base pyramid. Cross sections of cold-form high strength structural tubing are tapered
towards the nodes using a truncated cone interface elements welded to the tubes. Cones provide for
the transfer of forces from tubes to the connections, and reduce the sizes of the otherwise large
nodes. A hexagonal bearing element "sleeve" is used between the cone and the node with a pin
penetrating through the bolt and sleeve to allow for turning the bolt to engage into the node. The
tube-cones assembly is galvanized before inserting the bolts into the tubes.

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6.4 ConstructionTechnology
Erection
Space-frame is being constructed by strips extending between the back support and the front
arch of the frame. Each strip is secured between two adjacent supports to insure its relative position.
Strips are supported by temporary shoring towers between the supports and the front arch of space-
frame. Each tower is equipped with a screw-jack to fine-tune the relative position of space-frame and
to enable cambering the frame by its dead load deflection. Strips are tied together as they are
extended towards the front arch of the frame. This is to preserve the arch action of the frame which
provides a self-supporting mechanism.

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7.0 Reference
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2017, from
http://www.nilka.gr/space-frames/construction-management/
(n.d.). Retrieved December 02, 2017, from http://study.com/academy/lesson/space-frame-
definition-structures-design.html
Creating Eden in Cornwall (n.d). Retrieved November 25, 2017, from
http://www.ingenia.org.uk/Content/ingenia/issues/issue7/Jones.pdf
Eden project. (n.d.). Retrieved November 25, 2017, from http://cigdemckmkli.blogspot.my/
Greenhouse with a difference (n.d). Retrieved November 29, 2017, from
https://hortcom.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/enb-eden-21.pdf
How the Eden Project Works (n.d). Retrieved November 25, 2017, from
http://www.solaripedia.com/files/461.pdf
Jack Methods (n.d). Retrieved November 28, 2017, from
https://www.jfe-civil.com/pdf/catalog/jack_en.pdf
Khaldoun Mhaimeed (1992, October 20). Shah Alam Sports Complex Design and Construction of
Unistrut Space-frame Roof Structure. Retrieved November 24, 2017, from
http://scholarsmine.mst.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1684&context=isccss
Limited, H. A. (2015, October 15). Erection Methods for Space Structures. Retrieved November 27,
2017, from https://hindustanalcoxlimited.wordpress.com/2015/10/15/erection-methods-for-
space-structures/
Maksym Grzywinski (2016, January). Optimization of Double-Layer Braced Barrel Vaults,
Retrieved November 28, 2017, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290062970_Optimization_Of_Double-
Layer_Braced_Barrel_Vaults

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Space Frame Applications. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2017,
from http://alcox.webs.com/space-frame-applications
Space Frame Construction (n.d). Retrieved November 25, 2017, from
http://3dspaceco.com/public/user_data/shokouh/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84%D8
%A7%D8%AA%20%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86/11-
_space_frames_construction.pdf
Study of Barrel Vault (Girish S. Deshmukh). Retrieved November 26, 2017, from
http://www.ijer.in/ijer/publication/v5si1/54.pdf
The eden project (n.d). Retrieved November 27, 2017, from
http://faculty.arch.tamu.edu/media/cms_page_media/4433/eden.pdf
The structural Making of Eden Domes (n.d). Retrieved November 25, 2017, from
http://www.studioseverini.eu/res/DocumentiPDF/eden_project_english.pdf
Various Aspects Of Space Frames And Their Erection Using Sliding Method. (n.d.). Retrieved
November 28, 2017, from https://www.scribd.com/document/293511913/Various-Aspects-
Of-Space-Frames-And-Their-Erection-Using-Sliding-Method

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