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Water
quality
and
sampling
Surveillance of drinking water
quality. Safe and wholesome
water and water requirements.
Water quality-criteria and
standards. Water sampling for
physical and chemical examination
and for bacteriological
examination.
Fr

     A rosette sampler is used to collect
     samples in deep water, such as the
     Great Lakes or oceans, for water
     quality testing.
Water quality is the physical, chemical
 and biological characteristics of water.
 It is a measure of the condition of water
 relative to the requirements of one or
 more biotic species and or to any human
 need or purpose. It is most frequently
 used by reference to a set of standards
 against which compliance can be
 assessed. The most common standards
 used to assess water quality relate to
 health of ecosystems, safety of human
 contact and drinking water.



Water quality
In the setting of standards, agencies
 make political and technical/scientific
 decisions about how the water will be
 used. In the case of natural water
 bodies, they also make some reasonable
 estimate of pristine conditions. Different
 uses raise different concerns and
 therefore different standards are
 considered. Natural water bodies will
 vary in response to environmental
 conditions.

Standards
Environmental scientists work to
 understand how these systems
 function, which in turn helps to
 identify the sources and fates of
 contaminants. Environmental lawyers
 and policymakers work to define
 legislation with the intention that
 water is maintained at an appropriate
 quality for its identified use.

Standards
The vast majority of surface water on the planet
 is neither potable nor toxic. This remains true
 even if seawater in the oceans (which is too
 salty to drink) is not counted. Another general
 perception of water quality is that of a simple
 property that tells whether water is polluted or
 not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject,
 in part because water is a complex medium
 intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth.
 Industrial and commercial activities (e.g.
 manufacturing, mining, construction, transport)
 are a major cause of water pollution as are
 runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and
 discharge of treated and untreated sewage.


Standards
The parameters for water quality are
 determined by the intended use.
 Work in the area of water quality
 tends to be focused on water that is
 treated for human consumption,
 industrial use, or in the environment.




Category
Contaminants that may be in untreated
water include microorganisms such as
viruses and bacteria; inorganic
contaminants such as salts and metals;
organic chemical contaminants from
industrial processes and petroleum use;
pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive
contaminants. Water quality depends on the
local geology and ecosystem, as well as
human uses such as sewage dispersion,
industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a
heat sink, and overuse (which may lower
the level of the water).


Human consumption
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
 limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water
 provided by US public water systems. The Safe Drinking
 Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards:
 primary standards regulate substances that potentially
 affect human health, and secondary standards prescribe
 aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or
 appearance. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
 regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled
 water that must provide the same protection for public
 health. Drinking water, including bottled water, may
 reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts
 of some contaminants. The presence of these
 contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water
 poses a health risk.


Human consumption
Some people use water
 purification technology to remove
 contaminants from the municipal
 water supply they get in their
 homes, or from local pumps or
 bodies of water. Water drawn
 directly from a stream, lake, or
 aquifer and has no treatment will
 be of uncertain quality


Human consumption
Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of
 water for a range of industrial and domestic
 purposes. The most familiar of these is probably
 the presence of ions of calcium and magnesium
 which interfere with the cleaning action of soap,
 and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate
 deposits in water heaters or boilers. Hard water
 may be softened to remove these ions. The
 softening process often substitutes sodium
 cations. Hard water may be preferable to soft
 water for human consumption, since health
 problems have been associated with excess
 sodium and with calcium and magnesium
 deficiencies. Softening may sacrifice nutrition
 for cleaning effectiveness.

Industrial and Domestic Use
Urban runoff discharging to
coastal waters
Environmental water quality, also called
 ambient water quality, relates to water
 bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans.
 Water quality standards for surface
 waters vary significantly due to different
 environmental conditions, ecosystems,
 and intended human uses. Toxic
 substances and high populations of
 certain microorganisms can present a
 health hazard for non-drinking purposes
 such as irrigation, swimming, fishing,
 rafting, boating, and industrial uses.


Industrial and Domestic Use
These conditions may also affect
 wildlife, which use the water for
 drinking or as a habitat. Modern
 water quality laws generally specify
 protection of fisheries and
 recreational use and require, as a
 minimum, retention of current quality
 standards.



Industrial and Domestic Use
There is some desire among the public to
 return water bodies to pristine, or pre-
 industrial conditions. Most current
 environmental laws focus on the
 designation of particular uses of a water
 body. In some countries these
 designations allow for some water
 contamination as long as the particular
 type of contamination is not harmful to
 the designated uses.

Industrial and Domestic Use
Given the landscape changes (e.g., land
 development, urbanization, clearcutting
 in forested areas) in the watersheds of
 many freshwater bodies, returning to
 pristine conditions would be a significant
 challenge. In these cases, environmental
 scientists focus on achieving goals for
 maintaining healthy ecosystems and
 may concentrate on the protection of
 populations of endangered species and
 protecting human health.

Industrial and Domestic Use
The complexity of water quality as a subject
 is reflected in the many types of
 measurements of water quality indicators.
 The most accurate measurements of water
 quality are made on-site, because water
 exists in equilibrium with its surroundings.
 Measurements commonly made on-site and
 in direct contact with the water source in
 question include temperature, pH, dissolved
 oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction
 potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk
 depth.

Sampling and Measurement
An automated sampling station installed
 along the East Branch Milwaukee River,
 New Fane, Wisconsin. The cover of the
 24-bottle autosampler (center) is
 partially raised, showing the sample
 bottles inside. The autosampler was
 programmed to collect samples at time
 intervals, or proportionate to flow over a
 specified period. The data logger (white
 cabinet) recorded temperature, specific
 conductance, and dissolved oxygen
 levels.


Sample collection
Water quality and sampling
More complex measurements are often made in
 a laboratory requiring a water sample to be
 collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed
 at another location. The process of water
 sampling introduces two significant problems.
 The first problem is the extent to which the
 sample may be representative of the water
 source of interest. Many water sources vary
 with time and with location. The measurement
 of interest may vary seasonally or from day to
 night or in response to some activity of man or
 natural populations of aquatic plants and
 animals.



Measurement
The measurement of interest may vary with
 distances from the water boundary with
 overlying atmosphere and underlying or
 confining soil. The sampler must determine if a
 single time and location meets the needs of the
 investigation, or if the water use of interest can
 be satisfactorily assessed by averaged values
 with time and/or location, or if critical maxima
 and minima require individual measurements
 over a range of times, locations and/or events.
 The sample collection procedure must assure
 correct weighting of individual sampling times
 and locations where averaging is appropriate.



Measurement
Where critical maximum or minimum
 values exist, statistical methods must
 be applied to observed variation to
 determine an adequate number of
 samples to assess probability of
 exceeding those critical values.




Measurement
The second problem occurs as the sample is
 removed from the water source and begins to
 establish chemical equilibrium with its new
 surroundings - the sample container. Sample
 containers must be made of materials with
 minimal reactivity with substances to be
 measured; and pre-cleaning of sample
 containers is important. The water sample may
 dissolve part of the sample container and any
 residue on that container, or chemicals
 dissolved in the water sample may sorb onto
 the sample container and remain there when
 the water is poured out for analysis.



Measurement
Similar physical and chemical interactions may
 take place with any pumps, piping, or
 intermediate devices used to transfer the water
 sample into the sample container. Water
 collected from depths below the surface will
 normally be held at the reduced pressure of the
 atmosphere; so gas dissolved in the water may
 escape into unfilled space at the top of the
 container. Atmospheric gas present in that air
 space may also dissolve into the water sample.
 Other chemical reaction equilibria may change if
 the water sample changes temperature.




Measurement
Finely divided solid particles formerly
 suspended by water turbulence may settle to
 the bottom of the sample container, or a solid
 phase may form from biological growth or
 chemical precipitation. Microorganisms within
 the water sample may biochemically alter
 concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
 organic compounds. Changing carbon dioxide
 concentrations may alter pH and change
 solubility of chemicals of interest. These
 problems are of special concern during
 measurement of chemicals assumed to be
 significant at very low concentrations.



Measurement
Filtering a manually collected water
 sample ("grab sample") for analysis




Measurement
Sample preservation may partially resolve
 the second problem. A common procedure is
 keeping samples cold to slow the rate of
 chemical reactions and phase change, and
 analyzing the sample as soon as possible;
 but this merely minimizes the changes
 rather than preventing them. A useful
 procedure for determining influence of
 sample containers during delay between
 sample collection and analysis involves
 preparation for two artificial samples in
 advance of the sampling event.

Measurement
One sample container is filled with water
 known from previous analysis to contain
 no detectable amount of the chemical of
 interest. This blank sample is opened for
 exposure to the atmosphere when the
 sample of interest is collected, then
 resealed and transported to the
 laboratory with the sample for analysis
 to determine if sample holding
 procedures introduced any measurable
 amount of the chemical of interest.

Measurement
The second artificial sample is collected
 with the sample of interest, but then
 spiked with a measured additional
 amount of the chemical of interest at the
 time of collection. The blank and spiked
 samples are carried with the sample of
 interest and analyzed by the same
 methods at the same times to determine
 any changes indicating gains or losses
 during the elapsed time between
 collection and analysis.

Measurement
Inevitably after events such as earthquakes
 and tsunamis, there is an immediate
 response by the aid agencies as relief
 operations get underway to try and restore
 basic infrastructure and provide the basic
 fundamental items that are necessary for
 survival and subsequent recovery. Access to
 clean drinking water and adequate
 sanitation is a priority at times like this. The
 threat of disease increases hugely due to
 the large numbers of people living close
 together, often in squalid conditions, and
 without proper sanitation.
Testing in response to natural
disasters and other emergencies
After a natural disaster, as far as water
 quality testing is concerned there are
 widespread views on the best course of
 action to take and a variety of methods can
 be employed. The key basic water quality
 parameters that need to be addressed in an
 emergency are bacteriological indicators of
 fecal contamination, free chlorine residual,
 pH, turbidity and possibly conductivity/total
 dissolved solids. There are a number of
 portable water test kits on the market
 widely used by aid and relief agencies for
 carrying out such testing.
Testing in response to natural
disasters and other emergencies
After major natural disasters, a considerable
 length of time might pass before water quality
 returns to pre-disaster levels. For example,
 following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami the
 Colombo-based International Water
 Management Institute monitored the effects of
 saltwater and concluded that the wells
 recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality
 one and a half years after the event. IWMI
 developed protocols for cleaning wells
 contaminated by saltwater; these were
 subsequently officially endorsed by the World
 Health Organization as part of its series of
 Emergency Guidelines.

Testing in response to natural
disasters and other emergencies
A gas chromatograph-
 mass spectrometer measures
 pesticides and other organic
 polluants




Chemical analysis
The simplest methods of chemical analysis are
 those measuring chemical elements without
 respect to their form. Elemental analysis for
 dissolved oxygen, as an example, would
 indicate a concentration of 890,000 milligrams
 per litre (mg/L) of water sample because water
 is made of oxygen. The method selected to
 measure dissolved oxygen should differentiate
 between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined
 with other elements. The comparative simplicity
 of elemental analysis has produced a large
 amount of sample data and water quality
 criteria for elements sometimes identified as
 heavy metals.


Chemical analysis
Water analysis for heavy metals must consider
 soil particles suspended in the water sample.
 These suspended soil particles may contain
 measurable amounts of metal. Although the
 particles are not dissolved in the water, they
 may be consumed by people drinking the water.
 Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of
 dissolved metals onto the sample container may
 dissolve more metals from suspended soil
 particles. Filtration of soil particles from the
 water sample before acid addition, however,
 may cause loss of dissolved metals onto the
 filter.The complexities of differentiating similar
 organic molecules are even more challenging.


Chemical analysis
Making these complex
measurements can be
expensive. Because direct
measurements of water quality
can be expensive, ongoing
monitoring programs are
typically conducted by
government agencies. However,
there are local volunteer
programs and resources
available for some general
assessment. Tools available to
the general public include on-
site test kits, commonly used for
home fish tanks, and biological
assessment procedures.
An electrical conductivity meter is
 used to measure total dissolved
 solids




Drinking water indicators
Alkalinity
Color of water
pH
Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol(MIB),
  etc.)
Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride,
  potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)
Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria
  (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia
  lamblia

The following is a list of indicators
often measured by situational
category:
Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury,
  arsenic, etc.)
Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter
  (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
Radon
Heavy metals
Pharmaceuticals
Hormone analogs



The following is a list of indicators
often measured by situational
category:
   Dissolved oxygen (DO)
   Nitrate-N
   Orthophosphates
   Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
   Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
   Pesticides
   Metals


Environmental indicators
Chemical assessment
   pH
   Temperature
   Total suspended solids (TSS)
   Turbidity
   Total dissolved solids (TDS)




Environmental indicators
Physical assessment
Biological monitoring metrics have been
 developed in many places, and one widely used
 measure is the presence and abundance of
 members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera,
 Plecoptera and Trichoptera. (Common names
 are, respectively, Mayfly, Stonefly and
 Caddisfly.) EPT indexes will naturally vary from
 region to region, but generally, within a region,
 the greater the number of taxa from these
 orders, the better the water quality. EPA and
 other organizations in the United States offer
 guidance on developing a monitoring program
 and identifying members of these and other
 aquatic insect orders.

Environmental indicators
Biological assessment
Individuals interested in monitoring
 water quality who cannot afford or
 manage lab scale analysis can also
 use biological indicators to get a
 general reading of water quality. One
 example is the IOWATER volunteer
 water monitoring program, which
 includes a benthic macroinvertebrate
 indicator key.
Environmental indicators
Biological assessment
The Southern African Scoring System (SASS)
 method is a biological water quality monitoring
 system based on the presence of benthic
 macroinvertebrates. The SASS aquatic
 biomonitoring tool has been refined over the
 past 30 years and is now on the fifth version
 (SASS5) which has been specifically modified in
 accordance with international standards,
 namely the ISO/IEC 17025 protocol. The SASS5
 method is used by the South African
 Department of Water Affairs as a standard
 method for River Health Assessment, which
 feeds the national River Health Programme and
 the national Rivers Database.

Environmental indicators
Biological assessment
   The water policy of the European Union is
    primarily codified in three directives:
   Directive on Urban Waste Water Treatment
    (91/271/EEC) of 21 May 1991 concerning
    discharges of municipal and some industrial
    wastewaters;
   The Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) of
    3 November 1998 concerning potable water
    quality;
   Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)
    of 23 October 2000 concerning water
    resources management.



Standards and reports
In England and Wales
 acceptable levels for
 drinking water supply are
 listed in the "Water
 Supply (Water Quality)
 Regulations 2000.”

Standards and reports
In the United States, Water Quality Standards
 are created by state agencies for different types
 of water bodies and water body locations per
 desired uses. The Clean Water Act (CWA)
 requires each governing jurisdiction (states,
 territories, and covered tribal entities) to
 submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of
 water in their area. These reports are known as
 the 303(d), 305(b) and 314 reports, named for
 their respective CWA provisions, and are
 submitted to, and approved by, EPA. These
 reports are completed by the governing
 jurisdiction, typically a state environmental
 agency, and are available on the web.


Standards and reports
In coming years it is expected that the
 governing jurisdictions will submit all three
 reports as a single document, called the
 "Integrated Report." The 305(b) report
 (National Water Quality Inventory Report to
 Congress) is a general report on water quality,
 providing overall information about the number
 of miles of streams and rivers and their
 aggregate condition. The 314 report has
 provided similar information for lakes. The CWA
 requires states to adopt water quality standards
 for each of the possible designated uses that
 they assign to their waters.



Standards and reports
Should evidence suggest or document that a
 stream, river or lake has failed to meet the
 water quality criteria for one or more of its
 designated uses, it is placed on the 303(d)
 list of impaired waters. Once a state has
 placed a water body on the 303(d) list, it
 must develop a management plan
 establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads for
 the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the
 water. These TMDLs establish the
 reductions needed to fully support the
 designated uses.

Standards and reports
Water quality regulated by ISO is
 covered in the section of ICS 13.060,
 ranging from water sampling,
 drinking water, industrial class water,
 sewage water, and examination of
 water for chemical, physical or
 biological properties. ICS 91.140.60
 covers the standards of water supply
 system

International standards
“Water is life's mater and matrix, mother and
medium. There is no life without water.” -Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
Water is life, however not all water is safe for human standards. Water samples can provide a lot
of information on a water source such as nutrient content, pollution detection and bacterial
counts. Many different industries submit water samples for testing in order to improve water
quality. Not only does water samples provide constituents for drinking, but also for the
environment.


 What Is Water Sampling?
Water sampling is a technique used
 to analyze water from a variety of
 different sources. Sampling is a way
 of taking a small of amount of the
 source and testing it to provide
 information on the whole. Many
 different agencies use these samples
 to monitor pollution, biological or
 chemical changes, erosion and
 watershed management.



Significance
Homeowners take samples of their
 drinking water for health concerns.
 Ranchers and farmers may sample
 their wells for livestock and pasture
 management issues. State officials
 may test for water recreation and
 fishing reasons. No matter what the
 water is being used for, if it will
 impact humans in some way it needs
 to be tested.



Function
Water sampling is needed to determine
 chemical and biological constituents in a
 body of water. Again, several different
 industries use water to make life more
 pleasurable for humans. However,
 sometimes the ending result is releasing
 water back into a waterway filled with
 polluting substances that can harm the
 environment. Testing is often mandated by
 the Environmental Protection Agency to
 control the amount of substances released
 into ecosystems.

Motives
Samples are usually collected in a
 Whirlpak® or a sterile bag either
 by hand or by using a sampling
 line. For tap or well water, the
 sample should come directly out
 of the faucet into a sterile bottle.
 For sampling a stream or lake, it
 is important to take a sample
 from a site that is relative to the
 water body as a whole.

Types
When monitoring a water body or system, it
 is important to sample every quarter or
 seasonally to achieve an annual prospective
 of changes. The more samples gathered,
 the more data can be given about a
 particular site. Drinking water should also
 be tested in the same manner to monitor
 contamination levels and health risks.
 Water samples should be given to a
 laboratory within four days and kept cold to
 limit microbial influence on the sample.

Considerations
Thank you

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Water quality and sampling

  • 2. Surveillance of drinking water quality. Safe and wholesome water and water requirements. Water quality-criteria and standards. Water sampling for physical and chemical examination and for bacteriological examination.
  • 3. Fr A rosette sampler is used to collect samples in deep water, such as the Great Lakes or oceans, for water quality testing.
  • 4. Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking water. Water quality
  • 5. In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions about how the water will be used. In the case of natural water bodies, they also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Different uses raise different concerns and therefore different standards are considered. Natural water bodies will vary in response to environmental conditions. Standards
  • 6. Environmental scientists work to understand how these systems function, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use. Standards
  • 7. The vast majority of surface water on the planet is neither potable nor toxic. This remains true even if seawater in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage. Standards
  • 8. The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption, industrial use, or in the environment. Category
  • 9. Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water). Human consumption
  • 10. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards: primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health, and secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or appearance. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same protection for public health. Drinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. The presence of these contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk. Human consumption
  • 11. Some people use water purification technology to remove contaminants from the municipal water supply they get in their homes, or from local pumps or bodies of water. Water drawn directly from a stream, lake, or aquifer and has no treatment will be of uncertain quality Human consumption
  • 12. Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium and magnesium which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers. Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations. Hard water may be preferable to soft water for human consumption, since health problems have been associated with excess sodium and with calcium and magnesium deficiencies. Softening may sacrifice nutrition for cleaning effectiveness. Industrial and Domestic Use
  • 13. Urban runoff discharging to coastal waters
  • 14. Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. Industrial and Domestic Use
  • 15. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality standards. Industrial and Domestic Use
  • 16. There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre- industrial conditions. Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Industrial and Domestic Use
  • 17. Given the landscape changes (e.g., land development, urbanization, clearcutting in forested areas) in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human health. Industrial and Domestic Use
  • 18. The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators. The most accurate measurements of water quality are made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth. Sampling and Measurement
  • 19. An automated sampling station installed along the East Branch Milwaukee River, New Fane, Wisconsin. The cover of the 24-bottle autosampler (center) is partially raised, showing the sample bottles inside. The autosampler was programmed to collect samples at time intervals, or proportionate to flow over a specified period. The data logger (white cabinet) recorded temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels. Sample collection
  • 21. More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location. The process of water sampling introduces two significant problems. The first problem is the extent to which the sample may be representative of the water source of interest. Many water sources vary with time and with location. The measurement of interest may vary seasonally or from day to night or in response to some activity of man or natural populations of aquatic plants and animals. Measurement
  • 22. The measurement of interest may vary with distances from the water boundary with overlying atmosphere and underlying or confining soil. The sampler must determine if a single time and location meets the needs of the investigation, or if the water use of interest can be satisfactorily assessed by averaged values with time and/or location, or if critical maxima and minima require individual measurements over a range of times, locations and/or events. The sample collection procedure must assure correct weighting of individual sampling times and locations where averaging is appropriate. Measurement
  • 23. Where critical maximum or minimum values exist, statistical methods must be applied to observed variation to determine an adequate number of samples to assess probability of exceeding those critical values. Measurement
  • 24. The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from the water source and begins to establish chemical equilibrium with its new surroundings - the sample container. Sample containers must be made of materials with minimal reactivity with substances to be measured; and pre-cleaning of sample containers is important. The water sample may dissolve part of the sample container and any residue on that container, or chemicals dissolved in the water sample may sorb onto the sample container and remain there when the water is poured out for analysis. Measurement
  • 25. Similar physical and chemical interactions may take place with any pumps, piping, or intermediate devices used to transfer the water sample into the sample container. Water collected from depths below the surface will normally be held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere; so gas dissolved in the water may escape into unfilled space at the top of the container. Atmospheric gas present in that air space may also dissolve into the water sample. Other chemical reaction equilibria may change if the water sample changes temperature. Measurement
  • 26. Finely divided solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence may settle to the bottom of the sample container, or a solid phase may form from biological growth or chemical precipitation. Microorganisms within the water sample may biochemically alter concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic compounds. Changing carbon dioxide concentrations may alter pH and change solubility of chemicals of interest. These problems are of special concern during measurement of chemicals assumed to be significant at very low concentrations. Measurement
  • 27. Filtering a manually collected water sample ("grab sample") for analysis Measurement
  • 28. Sample preservation may partially resolve the second problem. A common procedure is keeping samples cold to slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and analyzing the sample as soon as possible; but this merely minimizes the changes rather than preventing them. A useful procedure for determining influence of sample containers during delay between sample collection and analysis involves preparation for two artificial samples in advance of the sampling event. Measurement
  • 29. One sample container is filled with water known from previous analysis to contain no detectable amount of the chemical of interest. This blank sample is opened for exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected, then resealed and transported to the laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample holding procedures introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest. Measurement
  • 30. The second artificial sample is collected with the sample of interest, but then spiked with a measured additional amount of the chemical of interest at the time of collection. The blank and spiked samples are carried with the sample of interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times to determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the elapsed time between collection and analysis. Measurement
  • 31. Inevitably after events such as earthquakes and tsunamis, there is an immediate response by the aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subsequent recovery. Access to clean drinking water and adequate sanitation is a priority at times like this. The threat of disease increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together, often in squalid conditions, and without proper sanitation. Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies
  • 32. After a natural disaster, as far as water quality testing is concerned there are widespread views on the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. The key basic water quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, free chlorine residual, pH, turbidity and possibly conductivity/total dissolved solids. There are a number of portable water test kits on the market widely used by aid and relief agencies for carrying out such testing. Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies
  • 33. After major natural disasters, a considerable length of time might pass before water quality returns to pre-disaster levels. For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami the Colombo-based International Water Management Institute monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event. IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines. Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies
  • 34. A gas chromatograph- mass spectrometer measures pesticides and other organic polluants Chemical analysis
  • 35. The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements without respect to their form. Elemental analysis for dissolved oxygen, as an example, would indicate a concentration of 890,000 milligrams per litre (mg/L) of water sample because water is made of oxygen. The method selected to measure dissolved oxygen should differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other elements. The comparative simplicity of elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data and water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as heavy metals. Chemical analysis
  • 36. Water analysis for heavy metals must consider soil particles suspended in the water sample. These suspended soil particles may contain measurable amounts of metal. Although the particles are not dissolved in the water, they may be consumed by people drinking the water. Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto the sample container may dissolve more metals from suspended soil particles. Filtration of soil particles from the water sample before acid addition, however, may cause loss of dissolved metals onto the filter.The complexities of differentiating similar organic molecules are even more challenging. Chemical analysis
  • 37. Making these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct measurements of water quality can be expensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted by government agencies. However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general assessment. Tools available to the general public include on- site test kits, commonly used for home fish tanks, and biological assessment procedures.
  • 38. An electrical conductivity meter is used to measure total dissolved solids Drinking water indicators
  • 39. Alkalinity Color of water pH Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol(MIB), etc.) Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium) Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:
  • 40. Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.) Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) Radon Heavy metals Pharmaceuticals Hormone analogs The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:
  • 41. Dissolved oxygen (DO)  Nitrate-N  Orthophosphates  Chemical oxygen demand (COD)  Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)  Pesticides  Metals Environmental indicators Chemical assessment
  • 42. pH  Temperature  Total suspended solids (TSS)  Turbidity  Total dissolved solids (TDS) Environmental indicators Physical assessment
  • 43. Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used measure is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera. (Common names are, respectively, Mayfly, Stonefly and Caddisfly.) EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region, but generally, within a region, the greater the number of taxa from these orders, the better the water quality. EPA and other organizations in the United States offer guidance on developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic insect orders. Environmental indicators Biological assessment
  • 44. Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale analysis can also use biological indicators to get a general reading of water quality. One example is the IOWATER volunteer water monitoring program, which includes a benthic macroinvertebrate indicator key. Environmental indicators Biological assessment
  • 45. The Southern African Scoring System (SASS) method is a biological water quality monitoring system based on the presence of benthic macroinvertebrates. The SASS aquatic biomonitoring tool has been refined over the past 30 years and is now on the fifth version (SASS5) which has been specifically modified in accordance with international standards, namely the ISO/IEC 17025 protocol. The SASS5 method is used by the South African Department of Water Affairs as a standard method for River Health Assessment, which feeds the national River Health Programme and the national Rivers Database. Environmental indicators Biological assessment
  • 46. The water policy of the European Union is primarily codified in three directives:  Directive on Urban Waste Water Treatment (91/271/EEC) of 21 May 1991 concerning discharges of municipal and some industrial wastewaters;  The Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) of 3 November 1998 concerning potable water quality;  Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) of 23 October 2000 concerning water resources management. Standards and reports
  • 47. In England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in the "Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000.” Standards and reports
  • 48. In the United States, Water Quality Standards are created by state agencies for different types of water bodies and water body locations per desired uses. The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d), 305(b) and 314 reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA. These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a state environmental agency, and are available on the web. Standards and reports
  • 49. In coming years it is expected that the governing jurisdictions will submit all three reports as a single document, called the "Integrated Report." The 305(b) report (National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress) is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition. The 314 report has provided similar information for lakes. The CWA requires states to adopt water quality standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Standards and reports
  • 50. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on the 303(d) list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on the 303(d) list, it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses. Standards and reports
  • 51. Water quality regulated by ISO is covered in the section of ICS 13.060, ranging from water sampling, drinking water, industrial class water, sewage water, and examination of water for chemical, physical or biological properties. ICS 91.140.60 covers the standards of water supply system International standards
  • 52. “Water is life's mater and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.” -Albert Szent-Gyorgyi Water is life, however not all water is safe for human standards. Water samples can provide a lot of information on a water source such as nutrient content, pollution detection and bacterial counts. Many different industries submit water samples for testing in order to improve water quality. Not only does water samples provide constituents for drinking, but also for the environment. What Is Water Sampling?
  • 53. Water sampling is a technique used to analyze water from a variety of different sources. Sampling is a way of taking a small of amount of the source and testing it to provide information on the whole. Many different agencies use these samples to monitor pollution, biological or chemical changes, erosion and watershed management. Significance
  • 54. Homeowners take samples of their drinking water for health concerns. Ranchers and farmers may sample their wells for livestock and pasture management issues. State officials may test for water recreation and fishing reasons. No matter what the water is being used for, if it will impact humans in some way it needs to be tested. Function
  • 55. Water sampling is needed to determine chemical and biological constituents in a body of water. Again, several different industries use water to make life more pleasurable for humans. However, sometimes the ending result is releasing water back into a waterway filled with polluting substances that can harm the environment. Testing is often mandated by the Environmental Protection Agency to control the amount of substances released into ecosystems. Motives
  • 56. Samples are usually collected in a Whirlpak® or a sterile bag either by hand or by using a sampling line. For tap or well water, the sample should come directly out of the faucet into a sterile bottle. For sampling a stream or lake, it is important to take a sample from a site that is relative to the water body as a whole. Types
  • 57. When monitoring a water body or system, it is important to sample every quarter or seasonally to achieve an annual prospective of changes. The more samples gathered, the more data can be given about a particular site. Drinking water should also be tested in the same manner to monitor contamination levels and health risks. Water samples should be given to a laboratory within four days and kept cold to limit microbial influence on the sample. Considerations