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Ammonia Synthesis
Flowsheet
Operator Training
By
Gerard B. Hawkins
Managing Director, CEO
Ammonia Synthesis Flowsheet - Operator training
Introduction
 Most modern ammonia processes are
based on steam-reforming of natural
gas or naphtha.
 The 3 main technology suppliers are
Uhde (Uhde/JM Partnership), Topsoe
& KBR.
 The process steps are very similar in all
cases.
 Other suppliers are Linde (LAC) &
Ammonia Casale.
Simplified - NH3 PlantH2O
H/C
feed
H/C
purification
Removes
impurities (S,
Cl, metals)
Primary
reforming
Converts to
H2, CO, CO2 +
H2O + CH4
CO
Shift
WGS
reaction
Secondary
reforming
Combustion +
Adiabatic Reforming
+ Adds Nitrogen
Air
Ammonia
synthesis NH3
Converts N2 +
H2 => NH3
Syngas
compression
Purification
CO2 Removal
& Methanation
Ammonia Synthesis Flowsheet - Operator training
Ammonia Synthesis Loop
 Synthesis reaction is equilibrium limited,
typically 15 – 20% NH3 at converter exit.
 Therefore recycle in a ‘loop’ is required.
 Multi-stage complex converters are
required to control bed temperatures.
 Various designs are used depending on
contractor.
 Liquid Ammonia is recovered by
refrigeration.
Simplified Flowsheet for a Typical Ammonia
Plant
Natural
Gas
Steam
superheater
Air
Steam
30
bar
Steam
Steam
raising
350 C
200 C
Heat
Recovery
Steam
raising
Cooling
Cooling
Reboiler
CO
Cooling
Preheater
Heat
Recovery
Steam
Boiler
Process
Condensate
Quench
Quench
Liquid Ammonia
H
Hydrodesulphuriser Primary
Reformer
Secondary
Reformer
High
Temperature
Shift
Low
Temperature
Shift
Ammonia SynthesisMethanator
Carbon Dioxide
Purge Gas
Cooling
400 Co
390 Co
2
790 C
o
550 Co
1000 Co
o
420 Co
150 C
o
400 Co
470 C
o
o
220 C
o
290 Co
330 Co
2
CO Removal2
220 bar
Refrigeration
Condensate
Cooling
Ammonia
Catchpot
Ammonia Plant Steam & Power
System
 Waste Heat recovery is used to raise
HP steam, 100 – 120 bar
 Steam is used to drive the main
compressors
• Process air
• Syn gas compression + circulator
• Refrigeration
 Pass-out steam is used for process.
Ammonia Flowsheet Variations
1. Uhde
 Top fired reformer
• Cold outlet manifold design
 Secondary reformer with internal riser
 H P loop (200 bar) with radial flow
converter
• 1 or 2 converters
 Once-through synthesis section upstream
of main synthesis loop for very large
capacities (dual pressure Uhde process)
Ammonia Flowsheet Variations
2. KBR
 Top-fired reformer
• With internal risers
 Several synthesis loop options:
• Conventional 140 bar loop with 4bed
quench converter
• Higher pressure for large-scale plants
• Horizontal converter on modern plants.
• KAAP design – 100 bar loop with Ru/C
catalyst
 Braun Purifier flowsheet
• Excess air with cryogenic ‘purifier’ to
remove excess N2 and inerts from MUG
Ammonia Flowsheet Variations
3. Topsøe
 Side-fired reformer
 Radial flow converter
• S-100 2 bed quench
• S-200 2 bed intercooled
• S-250 = S-200 + boiler + 2nd converter
(1 bed)
• S-300 3 bed intercooled
Ammonia Flowsheet Variations
4. Linde LAC (Linde Ammonia
Concept)
 Hydrogen plant + N2 addition from
air separation unit
 Ammonia Casale synthesis loop
Ammonia Flowsheet Variations
5. ICI (JM)
 AMV
• Large-scale process with excess air,
low pressure loop (80 – 110 bar)
 LCA
• Small-scale plant based on GHR
technology
 AMV / LCA technology is now part
of JM’s ‘background in ammonia’
Ammonia Synthesis Mechanism
 Dissociative adsorption of H2
Dissociative adsorption of N2 -
Believed to be the Rate Determining
Step (RDS)
Multi-step hydrogenation of
adsorbed N2
Desorption of NH3
Typical Uhde Synthesis Loop
Uhde Dual-Pressure Process
C.W.Make up gas
from frontend
C.W.
Steam
Once
through
converter
Synthesis
Loop
Purge
NH3
NH3
NH3
1 2 3 R
C.W.Make up gas
from frontend
C.W.
Steam
Once
through
converter
Synthesis
Loop
Purge
NH3
NH3
NH3
1 2 3 R
Effect of Pressure on Ammonia
Equilibrium Concentration
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
NH3concentration%
Pressure bara
380 C
400 C
420 C
Ammonia Equilibrium Diagram
300
(572)
350
(662)
400
(752)
450
(842)
500
(932)
550
(1022)
600
(1112)
650
(1202)
0
10
20
30
40
Equilibrium
Max Rate
Temperature °C (°F)
Ammoniacontent%
Effect of Catchpot Temperature on
Ammonia VLE
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
NH3concentration%
Pressure bara
0 C
minus 20 C
Synthesis Loop Principles:
Mass Balance
 Overall Loop Mass Balance
• On a mass basis:
NH3 = MUG – Purge
• On a molar basis:
NH3 = (MUG – Purge) / 2
because 4 mol -> 2 mol in the NH3
reaction.
 Converter balance, on a molar basis:
NH3 = Inlet gas – Outlet gas
Synthesis Loop Principles:
Mass Balance
 Converter Molar balance:
NH3 = Circ Flow x (NH3out- NH3in)
1 + NH3out
NH3in is set by P & T of final
separator
+ position of MUG addition (before or
after separator).
Synthesis Loop Principles:
Effect of Purge
 Circulating composition is the same
as the purge composition (like a
stirred-tank reactor).
 Inerts (CH4 + Ar) build-up in loop.
 Circulating gas H / N ratio is very
sensitive to MUG H / N ratio because
the reaction consumes gas in a 3 : 1
ratio.
Synthesis Loop Principles:
H2 : N2 ratio example
H / N = 3 : 1
MUG NH3 Purge
H2 3000 2700 300
N2 1000 900 100
H / N 3.0 3.0 3.0
H / N = 2.95 : 1
H2 2950 2700 250
N2 1000 900 100
H / N 2.95 3.0 2.50
Synthesis Loop Principles :
Inerts Balance
 Inerts (CH4 + Ar) concentrate in the loop,
typically by a factor of about 10.
 Note that some of the inerts (10 – 20% of
the total) dissolve in the product NH3.
 A few loops with purified make-up gas
have a ‘self-purging loop’ where all the
inerts are removed in solution in the
product.
 The NH3 content of the purge at the
flowmeter position is required to check the
loop mass balance.
Synthesis Loop Principles :
Effect of H2 Recovery
 Most modern loops have H2 recovery.
 2 systems are used, cryogenic or
membrane.
 The overall effect is similar, typically 90%
H2 recovery at 90% purity.
 Overall loop H2 conversion to NH3
increases from about 92% to 98%.
 MUG H / N ratio changes from 3.0 to
approx. 2.85, and returns to 3.0 after H2
addition.
Synthesis Loop Principles :
Control of Catalyst Bed Temperatures
 Multi-bed design :
 2, 3, or 4 catalyst beds with
intermediate cooling.
Synthesis Loop Principles :
Converter Heat Balance
 Older converter designs usually had an
interchanger after the final bed to contain
high temperatures within the converter.
 Modern designs typically have no ‘overall’
interchanger because this gives better
heat recovery (heat available at a higher
temperature)
 ‘Split converter designs’ further increase
the heat recovery temperature.
3 Bed Converter Example
450 C
1. Optimum Catalyst
Temperatures
410 C
520 C
415 C
480 C
410 C
3 i/c design
‘Cold’ Converter
410 C
520 C
415 C
480 C
410 C
450 C
120 C
335 C
2 i/c design
410 C
520 C
415 C
480 C
410 C
450 C
‘Hot’ Converter
235 C
1 i/c design
410 C
520 C
415 C
480 C
410 C
450 C
‘Split’ Converter 305 C
Converter Heat Recovery Example
 In all cases the amount of heat recovered
is the same, only the available
temperatures are different.
 In all cases, the catalyst bed temperatures
are the same:
Bed 1 410 – 520 dT = 110
Bed 2 415 – 480 dT = 65
Bed 3 410 – 450 dT = 40
Total Bed dT = Converter dT = 215
Comparison of 74 & 35 Series
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time on line (years)
RelativeActivity
Severnside LCA
Standard Catalyst
Effect of Size on Activity
Particle Diameter (mm)
14121086420
RelativeActivity
120
100
80
60
40
0
20
Effect of Size on Activity
 Smaller pellets = high activity
 Therefore high production rate or
smaller catalyst volume
 But pressure drop will rise
 Either axial-radial or radial flow
beds are used to minimise
pressure drop
 Radial flow is the basis of many
converter internal retrofits
Deactivation
 Clean Gas
• Thermal sintering
 Contaminated Gas
• Both Temporary and Permanent
Poisoning
• Oxygen induced sintering
• By water, CO and CO2
• Site blocking/Sintering
Typical Operating Conditions
 Temperature (o
C) 360-520
 Pressure (bar) 80-600
 Space velocity (hr-1
)1000-5000
 Poisons oxygen and oxygen
compounds
normally < 3ppm
Catalyst Size
Grade Size
A 1.5-3.0 mm
B 3.0-4.5 mm
C 3.0-6.0 mm
D / E 6.0-10.0 mm
G 14.0-20.0 mm
Catalyst Reduction
Max water in outlet gas during
reduction (ppm)
Formation of water during
reduction of 1te of Catalyst (kg)
Pre-reduced Oxidized
1000 3000
25 280
End
Ammonia Converter
Designs
Converter Designs
Objectives for modern designs are;
- low pressure drop with small catalyst
particles.
- high conversion per pass with high grade
heat recovery.
Principal types are designed by:
Uhde
Kellogg (KBR) - conventional, Braun,
KAAP
Topsoe
Ammonia Casale
JM (I C I)
Uhde
 Uhde design a range of converters:
 Modern designs use radial flow
with inter-cooling & 'split
converters' with heat recovery
between,
- Converter 1 : 2-bed, 1
interchanger
- Heat recovery (boiler)
- Converter 2 : 3rd bed.
Uhde 3 bed
NH3 Converter
M W Kellogg Converter Types
 'Conventional' make-up gas and loop
layout, refrigeration to low temperature (-
25 C),
 loop pressure typically 140 - 180 bar.
 Converters:
 4 bed quench ; conventional Kellogg
design.
 Horizontal converter ;
• lower cost, low pressure drop, easier
installation
• 2 bed inter-cooled layout with small catalyst
Kellogg Ammonia Quench Converter
Outlet
Inlet
Kellogg Horizontal Converter
Bed 1Bed 2ABed 2B
Inlet
Outlet
KBR KAAP
 Converter is made up of 4 beds
 First bed uses magnetite catalyst
 Ru can not be used since
temperature rise is too large
 Lower beds use Ru catalyst
 Ru catalyst has a carbon support
 Catalyst developed by BP
• Very high activity even at low pressure
Braun Converter Types
 Purifier Process gives pure make-up gas
 - low levels of poisons; H2O, CO, CO2
 - Low inerts; no purge from loop
 Converters :
 Basically 2-bed intercooled with each
catalyst bed in a separate vessel
 Modern designs may use 3 converters
&/or radial flow
Haldor Topsøe S- Series
 S-100 :Radial flow 2-bed quench
 S-200 :Radial flow 2-bed inter cooled
 S-250 : S-200, heat recovery, 2nd
converter with 1 radial flow bed
 S-300 :Radial flow 3-bed inter cooled
Topsøe S-200 Converter
Inlet
Outlet
Cold
Bypass
Ammonia Casale
 Ammonia Casale - 'axial-radial'
concept
- radial flow without a top cover on
the beds
- simpler mechanical design
 No. of beds & type of inter-bed
cooling varies;
typically 3 bed, 2 interchanger.
ICI Types
 Lozenge quench converter :
• single bed divided into 3 parts by quench
addition
• simple concept but suffered high pressure
drop
 ICI AMV Process :
• Low pressure loop with H2 recovery at loop
pressure
• range of converters in use
• Terra: ICI 3-bed, 1 quench + 1 intercooler
axial flow
 ICI LCA Process :
• Tube-cooled + adiabatic design.
ICI Lozenge Quench Converter
ICI Tube Cooled Converter
ICI TCC Equilibrium Plot
300
(572)
350
(662)
400
(752)
450
(842)
500
(932)
550
(1022)
600
(1112)
650
(1202)
0
10
20
30
40
Equilibrium
Max Rate
Converter Profile
Temperature °C (°F)
Ammoniacontent%
Ammonia Synthesis Flowsheet - Operator training

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Ammonia Synthesis Flowsheet - Operator training

  • 3. Introduction  Most modern ammonia processes are based on steam-reforming of natural gas or naphtha.  The 3 main technology suppliers are Uhde (Uhde/JM Partnership), Topsoe & KBR.  The process steps are very similar in all cases.  Other suppliers are Linde (LAC) & Ammonia Casale.
  • 4. Simplified - NH3 PlantH2O H/C feed H/C purification Removes impurities (S, Cl, metals) Primary reforming Converts to H2, CO, CO2 + H2O + CH4 CO Shift WGS reaction Secondary reforming Combustion + Adiabatic Reforming + Adds Nitrogen Air Ammonia synthesis NH3 Converts N2 + H2 => NH3 Syngas compression Purification CO2 Removal & Methanation
  • 6. Ammonia Synthesis Loop  Synthesis reaction is equilibrium limited, typically 15 – 20% NH3 at converter exit.  Therefore recycle in a ‘loop’ is required.  Multi-stage complex converters are required to control bed temperatures.  Various designs are used depending on contractor.  Liquid Ammonia is recovered by refrigeration.
  • 7. Simplified Flowsheet for a Typical Ammonia Plant Natural Gas Steam superheater Air Steam 30 bar Steam Steam raising 350 C 200 C Heat Recovery Steam raising Cooling Cooling Reboiler CO Cooling Preheater Heat Recovery Steam Boiler Process Condensate Quench Quench Liquid Ammonia H Hydrodesulphuriser Primary Reformer Secondary Reformer High Temperature Shift Low Temperature Shift Ammonia SynthesisMethanator Carbon Dioxide Purge Gas Cooling 400 Co 390 Co 2 790 C o 550 Co 1000 Co o 420 Co 150 C o 400 Co 470 C o o 220 C o 290 Co 330 Co 2 CO Removal2 220 bar Refrigeration Condensate Cooling Ammonia Catchpot
  • 8. Ammonia Plant Steam & Power System  Waste Heat recovery is used to raise HP steam, 100 – 120 bar  Steam is used to drive the main compressors • Process air • Syn gas compression + circulator • Refrigeration  Pass-out steam is used for process.
  • 9. Ammonia Flowsheet Variations 1. Uhde  Top fired reformer • Cold outlet manifold design  Secondary reformer with internal riser  H P loop (200 bar) with radial flow converter • 1 or 2 converters  Once-through synthesis section upstream of main synthesis loop for very large capacities (dual pressure Uhde process)
  • 10. Ammonia Flowsheet Variations 2. KBR  Top-fired reformer • With internal risers  Several synthesis loop options: • Conventional 140 bar loop with 4bed quench converter • Higher pressure for large-scale plants • Horizontal converter on modern plants. • KAAP design – 100 bar loop with Ru/C catalyst  Braun Purifier flowsheet • Excess air with cryogenic ‘purifier’ to remove excess N2 and inerts from MUG
  • 11. Ammonia Flowsheet Variations 3. Topsøe  Side-fired reformer  Radial flow converter • S-100 2 bed quench • S-200 2 bed intercooled • S-250 = S-200 + boiler + 2nd converter (1 bed) • S-300 3 bed intercooled
  • 12. Ammonia Flowsheet Variations 4. Linde LAC (Linde Ammonia Concept)  Hydrogen plant + N2 addition from air separation unit  Ammonia Casale synthesis loop
  • 13. Ammonia Flowsheet Variations 5. ICI (JM)  AMV • Large-scale process with excess air, low pressure loop (80 – 110 bar)  LCA • Small-scale plant based on GHR technology  AMV / LCA technology is now part of JM’s ‘background in ammonia’
  • 14. Ammonia Synthesis Mechanism  Dissociative adsorption of H2 Dissociative adsorption of N2 - Believed to be the Rate Determining Step (RDS) Multi-step hydrogenation of adsorbed N2 Desorption of NH3
  • 16. Uhde Dual-Pressure Process C.W.Make up gas from frontend C.W. Steam Once through converter Synthesis Loop Purge NH3 NH3 NH3 1 2 3 R C.W.Make up gas from frontend C.W. Steam Once through converter Synthesis Loop Purge NH3 NH3 NH3 1 2 3 R
  • 17. Effect of Pressure on Ammonia Equilibrium Concentration 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 NH3concentration% Pressure bara 380 C 400 C 420 C
  • 19. Effect of Catchpot Temperature on Ammonia VLE 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 NH3concentration% Pressure bara 0 C minus 20 C
  • 20. Synthesis Loop Principles: Mass Balance  Overall Loop Mass Balance • On a mass basis: NH3 = MUG – Purge • On a molar basis: NH3 = (MUG – Purge) / 2 because 4 mol -> 2 mol in the NH3 reaction.  Converter balance, on a molar basis: NH3 = Inlet gas – Outlet gas
  • 21. Synthesis Loop Principles: Mass Balance  Converter Molar balance: NH3 = Circ Flow x (NH3out- NH3in) 1 + NH3out NH3in is set by P & T of final separator + position of MUG addition (before or after separator).
  • 22. Synthesis Loop Principles: Effect of Purge  Circulating composition is the same as the purge composition (like a stirred-tank reactor).  Inerts (CH4 + Ar) build-up in loop.  Circulating gas H / N ratio is very sensitive to MUG H / N ratio because the reaction consumes gas in a 3 : 1 ratio.
  • 23. Synthesis Loop Principles: H2 : N2 ratio example H / N = 3 : 1 MUG NH3 Purge H2 3000 2700 300 N2 1000 900 100 H / N 3.0 3.0 3.0 H / N = 2.95 : 1 H2 2950 2700 250 N2 1000 900 100 H / N 2.95 3.0 2.50
  • 24. Synthesis Loop Principles : Inerts Balance  Inerts (CH4 + Ar) concentrate in the loop, typically by a factor of about 10.  Note that some of the inerts (10 – 20% of the total) dissolve in the product NH3.  A few loops with purified make-up gas have a ‘self-purging loop’ where all the inerts are removed in solution in the product.  The NH3 content of the purge at the flowmeter position is required to check the loop mass balance.
  • 25. Synthesis Loop Principles : Effect of H2 Recovery  Most modern loops have H2 recovery.  2 systems are used, cryogenic or membrane.  The overall effect is similar, typically 90% H2 recovery at 90% purity.  Overall loop H2 conversion to NH3 increases from about 92% to 98%.  MUG H / N ratio changes from 3.0 to approx. 2.85, and returns to 3.0 after H2 addition.
  • 26. Synthesis Loop Principles : Control of Catalyst Bed Temperatures  Multi-bed design :  2, 3, or 4 catalyst beds with intermediate cooling.
  • 27. Synthesis Loop Principles : Converter Heat Balance  Older converter designs usually had an interchanger after the final bed to contain high temperatures within the converter.  Modern designs typically have no ‘overall’ interchanger because this gives better heat recovery (heat available at a higher temperature)  ‘Split converter designs’ further increase the heat recovery temperature.
  • 28. 3 Bed Converter Example 450 C 1. Optimum Catalyst Temperatures 410 C 520 C 415 C 480 C 410 C
  • 29. 3 i/c design ‘Cold’ Converter 410 C 520 C 415 C 480 C 410 C 450 C 120 C 335 C
  • 30. 2 i/c design 410 C 520 C 415 C 480 C 410 C 450 C ‘Hot’ Converter 235 C
  • 31. 1 i/c design 410 C 520 C 415 C 480 C 410 C 450 C ‘Split’ Converter 305 C
  • 32. Converter Heat Recovery Example  In all cases the amount of heat recovered is the same, only the available temperatures are different.  In all cases, the catalyst bed temperatures are the same: Bed 1 410 – 520 dT = 110 Bed 2 415 – 480 dT = 65 Bed 3 410 – 450 dT = 40 Total Bed dT = Converter dT = 215
  • 33. Comparison of 74 & 35 Series 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Time on line (years) RelativeActivity Severnside LCA Standard Catalyst
  • 34. Effect of Size on Activity Particle Diameter (mm) 14121086420 RelativeActivity 120 100 80 60 40 0 20
  • 35. Effect of Size on Activity  Smaller pellets = high activity  Therefore high production rate or smaller catalyst volume  But pressure drop will rise  Either axial-radial or radial flow beds are used to minimise pressure drop  Radial flow is the basis of many converter internal retrofits
  • 36. Deactivation  Clean Gas • Thermal sintering  Contaminated Gas • Both Temporary and Permanent Poisoning • Oxygen induced sintering • By water, CO and CO2 • Site blocking/Sintering
  • 37. Typical Operating Conditions  Temperature (o C) 360-520  Pressure (bar) 80-600  Space velocity (hr-1 )1000-5000  Poisons oxygen and oxygen compounds normally < 3ppm
  • 38. Catalyst Size Grade Size A 1.5-3.0 mm B 3.0-4.5 mm C 3.0-6.0 mm D / E 6.0-10.0 mm G 14.0-20.0 mm
  • 39. Catalyst Reduction Max water in outlet gas during reduction (ppm) Formation of water during reduction of 1te of Catalyst (kg) Pre-reduced Oxidized 1000 3000 25 280
  • 40. End
  • 42. Converter Designs Objectives for modern designs are; - low pressure drop with small catalyst particles. - high conversion per pass with high grade heat recovery. Principal types are designed by: Uhde Kellogg (KBR) - conventional, Braun, KAAP Topsoe Ammonia Casale JM (I C I)
  • 43. Uhde  Uhde design a range of converters:  Modern designs use radial flow with inter-cooling & 'split converters' with heat recovery between, - Converter 1 : 2-bed, 1 interchanger - Heat recovery (boiler) - Converter 2 : 3rd bed.
  • 44. Uhde 3 bed NH3 Converter
  • 45. M W Kellogg Converter Types  'Conventional' make-up gas and loop layout, refrigeration to low temperature (- 25 C),  loop pressure typically 140 - 180 bar.  Converters:  4 bed quench ; conventional Kellogg design.  Horizontal converter ; • lower cost, low pressure drop, easier installation • 2 bed inter-cooled layout with small catalyst
  • 46. Kellogg Ammonia Quench Converter Outlet Inlet
  • 47. Kellogg Horizontal Converter Bed 1Bed 2ABed 2B Inlet Outlet
  • 48. KBR KAAP  Converter is made up of 4 beds  First bed uses magnetite catalyst  Ru can not be used since temperature rise is too large  Lower beds use Ru catalyst  Ru catalyst has a carbon support  Catalyst developed by BP • Very high activity even at low pressure
  • 49. Braun Converter Types  Purifier Process gives pure make-up gas  - low levels of poisons; H2O, CO, CO2  - Low inerts; no purge from loop  Converters :  Basically 2-bed intercooled with each catalyst bed in a separate vessel  Modern designs may use 3 converters &/or radial flow
  • 50. Haldor Topsøe S- Series  S-100 :Radial flow 2-bed quench  S-200 :Radial flow 2-bed inter cooled  S-250 : S-200, heat recovery, 2nd converter with 1 radial flow bed  S-300 :Radial flow 3-bed inter cooled
  • 52. Ammonia Casale  Ammonia Casale - 'axial-radial' concept - radial flow without a top cover on the beds - simpler mechanical design  No. of beds & type of inter-bed cooling varies; typically 3 bed, 2 interchanger.
  • 53. ICI Types  Lozenge quench converter : • single bed divided into 3 parts by quench addition • simple concept but suffered high pressure drop  ICI AMV Process : • Low pressure loop with H2 recovery at loop pressure • range of converters in use • Terra: ICI 3-bed, 1 quench + 1 intercooler axial flow  ICI LCA Process : • Tube-cooled + adiabatic design.
  • 54. ICI Lozenge Quench Converter
  • 55. ICI Tube Cooled Converter
  • 56. ICI TCC Equilibrium Plot 300 (572) 350 (662) 400 (752) 450 (842) 500 (932) 550 (1022) 600 (1112) 650 (1202) 0 10 20 30 40 Equilibrium Max Rate Converter Profile Temperature °C (°F) Ammoniacontent%