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Radicalization in Pakistan
The Radicalizationof Pakistan and the spread of Radical Islam in Pakistan
Candidate
BASHIR AHMAD
Supervisor
JANIKE HEDAL STRAY
MF Norwegian School of Theology, 2015
Spring Semester:2015
Course code: AVH5035:
Master's Thesis (60 ECTS)
Study program : Master in Religion, Society and Global Issues
1
Contents
Chapter1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……. 4
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4
1.1 Research question:............................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Theoretical foundation ..................................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 Introduction:.............................................................................................................. 7
1.2.2 Huntington theory of civilization.............................................................................. 7
1.2.3 Lieven theory of religion and nationalism:............................................................... 9
Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................... 12
2.Introduction: .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Comparison of Samuel Huntington’s clash of civilization theory and Anatole Lieven
religion and nationalism theory:………………………………………………………………13
2.3 Research approaches and design:................................................................................... 13
2.4 Sampling procedures:..................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Data collection technique:.............................................................................................. 16
2.6 Data analysis: ................................................................................................................. 16
2.7 Reliability and validity:.................................................................................................. 17
2.8 Weakness of the research method:................................................................................. 17
2.9 Data collection technique:.............................................................................................. 18
2.10 Conclusion and summary:.............................................................................................. 18
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Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................ 21
3. Introduction:....................................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Historical background .................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 4.................................................................................................................................. 27
4. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 27
4.1 The Radicalization Process ............................................................................................ 27
4.2 Radicalization in Pakistan:............................................................................................. 31
4.3 Exclusive Islamic Identity and Youth Radicalization.................................................... 32
4.4 Madrassa education: a threat to peace and tolerance ..................................................... 35
4.5 Education in modern regular schools:............................................................................ 38
4.6 Education employing for eradicating extremism: .......................................................... 40
4.7 Limitations : the current educational curriculum which hinders in the way to combat
the terrorism and extremism...................................................................................................... 43
4.8 Links of the pakistani education system with the extremism: ....................................... 44
4.9 Teaching to the citizens: s the education and why:........................................................ 45
4.10 Conclusion and summary:.............................................................................................. 56
Chapter 5....................................................................................................................................... 47
5. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 48
5.1 Critical analysis:............................................................................................................. 48
5.2 Roots of extremism in Pakistan:..................................................................................... 48
5.3 Outcomes derived from madrassa in form of hate:........................................................ 49
5.4 Wthe formducation: ystem of madrassa is under criticism? .......................................... 54
5. withfluence of environment and Pedagogy:.......................................................................... 56
5.6 Militants and moderates:................................................................................................ 58
5.7 Change and continuity : religious education:................................................................ 59
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5.8 Diversity o: institutions:................................................................................................. 59
5.9 Transnational networks:................................................................................................. 61
5.10 Challenges to reform:..................................................................................................... 61
5.10.1 Independence of madrassas…………………………………………………………….76
5.11 What is a madrassa? ....................................................................................................... 65
5.12 Overview of madrassas: ................................................................................................. 67
Figures, Facts, and opinion based on the reports of The Express Tribune:............................ 69
5.13 Madrassa text.................................................................................................................. 70
5.14 Languages Taught to students in Madrassas:................................................................. 72
Chapter 6....................................................................................................................................... 75
6. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 75
6.1 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 75
6.2 Findings not recommendation........................................................................................ 84
6.3 Future findings: .............................................................................................................. 85
Chapter 7....................................................................................................................................... 87
7. References.............................................................................................................................. 87
4
Chapter 1
Radicalization in Pakistan and the spread of radical Islam in Pakistan
1. Introduction
In this chapter I want to discuss the main reason of religious radicalization in Pakistan. Islamic
radicalism and extremism, political, social, cultural and traditional beliefs and anti-west sentiments
are the important factors that radicalize people in Pakistan.
It is pertinent to mention that radicalism is not intrinsic to Islam and radical interpretations of the
religion or for that matter may occur within any way of life and religion (Saikal, 2003), and yet,
the question remains as to why Muslims in certain geographical regions have more radical
approaches towards their religion and also that what are the causes of such radicalization.
Becoming a radical Muslim is not even a matter of a day nor is it a sudden process. There are
several reasons behind making a person radical, peaceful, angry, smiling or tolerant. For knowing
the reason behind radicalization or radicals persons, one has to understand the causes. Tracing
these causes is one of the ways to eliminate such behavior. The first step in the elimination of the
radical sentiments in a person is to develop peace in his personality, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro,
2010). The chapter, which has been addressed here, is going to shed light on the roots and
symptoms of the radicalism. There will be a brief discussion on how the roots of radicalism can
be traced and can be eliminated. The assessment and discussion will be conducted on the
parameters of the economy, media, politics, and theology from social cultural point of view.
According to the analysis of Ahrari, (2000), political factor is one of the major and direct factors
which have resulted in causing of the radicalism. These factors however intertwine with one
another. Radical actions cannot take place only because of the political factors. There are other
factors also that should be given equal importance, in accordance with the work of Nasr (2002).
Sectarian killings are another reason of radicalization in Muslims. These killings became rampant
and welcomed jihadists to come to Pakistan from Afghanistan and play their part against non-
Muslims and Muslims, as well, (Roy, 2002). The syllabus of the subjects such as Islamic studies
and Pakistan studies is also viewed as instilling the hate ideology among school children, and
college students (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010; Saikal, 2003). Even the militants and Mullahs
5
have also worked for these radicalized people and they have tamed them to fight for their motives
and feed their ambitions.
In traditional societies, religion and culture play an important role. The Traditional and moderate
Islamic beliefs and practices with strong indigenous and Sufi content in South Asia are
diametrically opposed to the radical Wahhabi and Taliban ideologies and practices which are
intolerant of other cultures and groups, (Yusuf, 2008). The emergence of radicalization and the
spread of radical Islam in Pakistan is the main source of instability and conflict in this region,
(Kirby, 2007).
Another doctrine of Zahab, (2002), has explained that extremism or radicalization has tendencies
in the country and they are the product of imperial, local, national and interlocking capitalist
factors. Global and the transitional factors are playing a part in the creation of the religious
violence. Even the rulers of Pakistan and government is also involved in making alliances with the
retrogressive forces for the achievement of their political goals and seek power from Americans
and Saudi Arabia. Moreover, due to the disharmony, dishonesty, challenges, failing economy,
fragmentation, political turmoil, directionless education system, dysfunctional government and
real concerns are the source of creating radicalism in Islam and Pakistan, (Cohen, 2003).
Radical Islam began showing its influence in Pakistan during 1979 When Afghan Jihad started
against Soviet forces in Afghanistan and has since become an important factor in the conflict,
resulting in several unconventional attacks on Pakistani Army targets and the fragmentation of the
separatist movement of Baluchistan, (Ahrari, 2000). The terrorist tactics and radical beliefs of a
number of Pakistani Taliban are unprecedented in Pakistan, but contrary to popular belief, radical
Islam is embraced only by a minority of the population, (Chellaney, 2006). Additionally, Pakistani
practice a form of Sunni Islam with Sufi influences, and Sufis and Wahhabis have never had
harmonious relations, (Roy, 2002).
Societal transformation is a continuous process and it does not depend on the single factor. The
phenomena of the transformation are being linked with the internal and external factors. Internal
factors include the religious disharmony, failing economy, education system, and dysfunctional
government. External factors include clashes of the civilization and the generation of the war and
anti-west sentiments (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). So in this assessment of the analytical
6
work the analysis of the factors causing the radicalization in the Muslims has been intended to
analyze. Moreover, the assessment is planned to base over exploration of factors which has
resulted in expanding the perceptions of the people about radicalization, (Nasr, S. V. 2002). It is
also intended to explore that what have forced people to change their perceptions and behavioral
adaptation due to the Afghan and US war, especially after 1979. In addition, the need is to explore
that how Islamic settings and the education system in Pakistan is generating the negative feelings
of hate for the other people. In addition, this work has also set its focus over explaining the role of
the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan government.
The aim of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive explanation of the causes of the spread of
radical Islam in Pakistan. Other research on the subject fails to provide an in-depth explanation for
this recent phenomenon and presents only a partial picture of the causes. This thesis will, through
the application of two theories, investigate different claims and is expected to arrive at certain
conclusions concerning the causes behind the spread of radical Islam in Pakistan. Hence, the
objectives are of the current study are:
- The exploration of factors that have resulted in radicalization. Radicalization has been
created by the formation of strong beliefs to save Islam and its boundaries from non-
believers and fight for the rights of the nation has given birth to the militants.
- To explore that what have forced people to change their perception and behavioral
adaptation due to the Afghan and US war, especially after 1979. Afghanistan is the hub of
Talibanisation and is the main area controlled by Mullah Umar and Osama Bin Laden and
their successor. US have started the war against them with the help of Pakistan due to which
both countries have to face some pros and cons.
- The exploration of how Islamic settings and education system in Pakistan is generating the
feelings of hate for other people and analyze the cultural, social and economic factors.
- To set its focus over explaining the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation
of war against terrorism by Pakistan government. Pakistan has to face economically bad
conditions due to numerous factors, since the day first. They have remained in issues
created by India and later on they have lost their main area of West Pakistan (Bangladesh).
7
Political instability has created the issues of unemployment, health, education and security
unaddressed. Some of the natural disasters like flood, earth quakes and tsunami have also
distracted the country and in such condition aid is the only option to run the country.
Pakistan has faced burden of IMF loan and they are forced to get involved in the war against
terrorism, which has restricted their economic and social growth.
1.1 Research question
What are the factors behind the emergence of radical Islam in Pakistan?
1.2 Theoretical foundation
1.3 In addition to the literature review I have applied two major theories for discussing the
causes of radicalization of Islam. Huntington theory explains that Islam is the only religion
of violence and Islam is originated from tribal conflict and even the birth of Islamic
religion is violent. In the Holy Quran and other Islamic books use the authoritative
language that convinces Muslims to use violence against non-Muslims. On the contrary,
Lieven’s theory of religion and nationalism explain that the differences between different
ethnic groups lead to violent conflict. In Pakistan many different ethnic groups are living
together and the main cause of violent conflict and radicalism are ethnic differences.
1.3.1 Introduction
The two theories that have been reviewed in this chapter are of Huntington and the Lieven. These
two theories have been studied as they have laid ground for the understanding development of
conflicts among nation and reason for causing the radicalization process heat up in Islam. Ideology
explained here very fruitful for the development of understanding about the Islam, Muslim and
their acts in radicalization process.
1.3.2 Huntington theory of civilization
The theory presented by Huntington about the Clash of the Civilization has been published in
Foreign Affairs journal and it has got more attention from the world. It is being suggested by the
theory that the world has got influenced by the clashes between the civilizations. However, the
theory has not got appreciation and it has to undergo criticism for the ignoring of indigenous
8
conflicts, wrong prediction about past and over simplification. It has been evidently proven that
the claims made by Huntington are not supported by the world after the incidents of the 9/11. The
world went into a new cold war and has influenced by the International relationships, (Kean, &
Hamilton, 2004).
Huntington theory has shown its entire basis over the future of the “great division between the
human kinds and dominance in the source of conflict due to the culture”. The division of the culture
is being done in to seven current civilizations as Hindu, Western, Islamic, Japanese, African, Latin
American and Sinic civilization.
Huntington has discussed the ideology for the confrontation among the liberal democracy and the
communism as the future of the conflicts among the micro level of the civilization. He has
predicted that at the macro level, the conflict has occurred due to having difference in the
civilization and for unable to control the institutions for the military powers and the economic
powers. This is attributed due to the vast history of conflicts among the different civilization. This
is also attributed to the geo political factors rather the only persuading the cultural differences
(Altman, Burton, Cuthill, Festing, Hutton, & Playle, 2006).
The power of multi civilizations becomes stronger over the clash of the Soviet Union. It is not the
fact that civilizations were not present before this cold war, but it is truth that they become more
communicative and powerful after this cold war. Politics in the world is being now shaped by
different civilizations, which according to the Huntington is based over the highest cultural
grouping and results in identifying the cultural identity. The intellectual characteristics of the
society has been addressed by these common believes and values, and one of them is the religion
formation. Race and the political entities are the two dimensions over which civilization are
distinguished and differentiated from others. The identity of civilization has become stronger
identity and is becoming reason to derive the conflicts behind the world and is replacing super
power rivalry, (Kean, & Hamilton, 2004).
Huntington has addressed the issue of clashes in the civilization by accepting the fact that the world
is based over different multi-player and multi civilization. The power of multi civilizations
becomes stronger over the clash of the Soviet Union. It is not the fact that civilizations were not
present before this cold war, but it is true that they become more communicative and powerful
9
after this cold war. Huntington has claimed that Muslims are the Bloody Boarder and they have
destroyed the world peace. They cannot live with non-Muslims and thereby they have adopted the
ideology of converting the non-Muslims into Muslims. Although, they have done this, still they
do not accept the minorities of non-Muslims in their countries. They are brutal and cruel and they
cannot have tended to accept their presence. Huntington has shown that Muslim civilization has
done this because they have a fear of losing their identity in the world as a civilization and to
ensure that they do not lose it, they have adopted the way of hate spreading. They are killing one
another, so to keep their identity alive as the brutal nation, (Altman, Burton, Cuthill, Festing,
Hutton, & Playle, 2006).
1.3.3 Lieven theory of religion and nationalism
Lieven has admitted that nationalism and religiosity are created due to the span of the centuries
and develop the religious identity and ethnic cultural identity. The threat caused due to the ethos
provides strength to the religious convictions and the embracement of the fanatical forms which
gives power to the cultural resistance and militants. However, his believing is opposite to that of
Huntington. Huntington believes that it is the nation who generates the conflicts and act in a
conflicting manner towards accepting the civilization of others. Whereas, Lieven believes that
conflict is the root cause of creating ideology for the nation. When there is conflict occurred in the
society, civilization act as religious and national fanatics. Firstly, they are not a threat to others,
but later on they become a huge threat for others. So, it is found that the ideology of the Lieven
about the religiosity and nationalism is quite changed to that of the Huntington. He has presented
a completely different view, (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006).
Lieven has talked too much about the idealism of the American nations by addressing the
American Creed, constitutionalism, democracy, liberty, law, separation of churches and
individualism. He has addressed the attitudes and influencing factors for both of the domestic and
the foreign affairs. He has written in his book about the reasonable situation of the American
nations and their part in struggling against the terrorism, al Qaeda and other allies. They are backed
with the support of their entire nation and power from the entire world for the safety of the
humanity.
10
Lieven has thereby first painted the picture in explaining the nation and its features as
constitutionalism, democracy, liberty, law, separation of churches, equality, social, desire to spread
their religion and individualism., (Diagonal, 2004). It is found that Americans cannot spread their
religion and nationalism as they have restricted rules and they might become able to confront the
world about their actual values and that is the reason they have unrealistically hold such acts. The
Lieven has thus added the decapitation and democratic theory which is going to be supported with
Saddam. This is the camping of American nation for making the other societies and communities
democratic. This means they have promoted the meanness of the spirit and sloppiness of the
intellectual. This work is valuable for the entire nation of USA and for the whole world, (Guest,
Bunce, & Johnson, 2006).
Many nations have resulted to have adherence of the religion processes for the homogenizing
modernization among the miserable, cruelest and bear the association with the cultural and
imperial power to threat the destruction and assimilation of the culture. As a result strong religious
feelings are resulted to arouse in the nation and it resulted in the evolution of the war against
terrorism and pray under the fire. The reasons which have created the radicalization in Pakistan
are based over the construct of Lieven’s theory. The creation of radicalization in Pakistan is based
over two major points: conservatism in the classes and societies and the extent to which culture
and nation appears to be threatening due to destruction and assimilation outside the cultural
influences, as explained by Lieven, (Diagonal, 2004). Comparison of Samuel Huntington’s clash
of civilization theory and Anatole Lieven religion and nationalism theory:
Huntington belief was that the civilizations are the reason for the conflict and since religion is the
core aspect of civilization, thereby religion has become the reason for the creation of conflict. The
claim of Lieven’s is quite opposite to that of Huntington. He has claimed the opposite and said that
conflict is the main source behind religiosity. He explained that conflicts are not fueled by the
religion fanatics rather it is vice versa. It means that conflict occurs and then after this strong
believers in the religions are created.
Huntington theory of civilization Lieventheory of religiosity and nationalism
11
Multiplier and multicultural nature of the
civilization is addressed as a core aspect of the
theory
The clashes of the civilization and the
generation of the war and anti-west sentiments
are the reasons for the adopted policies and
socioeconomic conditions
Race and Politics are used to shape different
civilizations and nations
Conflict is used to shape different religion and
nations
Common values and beliefs are used to
address the ideology in the religion formation
The noticeable religious influence is resulted
due to the secular nationalism
Super power is being replaced by the
civilizations who have strong replacing power
The threat caused due to the ethos provides
strength to the religious convictions and the
embracement of the fanatical forms which
gives power to the cultural resistance and
militants
Ethnic conflicts and tribal conflicts are the
two areas over which to civilization conflict
with each other
Conflicts are not fueled by the religion
fanatics
Religion has become the reason for the
creation of conflict
Conflict is the main source behind religiosity.
The comparison of both theories explain that radicalization in Pakistani society is mainly focuses
violence in Islam and traditional and cultural conflict.
The chapter mentioned a comprehensive explanations and causes of religious radicalism in
Pakistan. During my research work I have found several factors that are working behind the spread
of radicalization in Pakistan. Huntington arguments that Islam lacks its position seems to be true
in Pakistani society. Lieven theory of nationalism also seems true that ethnic, social and cultural
conflicts are causing radicalism. Both Huntington’s and Lieven’s theory are very helpful in
answering the research question. Both theories are presenting a comprehensive picture of the
spread of radicalization in Pakistan.
12
Chapter 2
2. Introduction
Methodological section of the research tells about the ways through which researcher has finally
made the way to reaching solutions. The way highlighted is based over the reviews made about
the previous researchers and sees what outcomes they have managed to obtain. I use the method
13
to approach the research problem theoretically. The two theories clash of civilization is focusing
on his arguments about Islam. His arguments that Islam is the bloody borders giving a complete
assumption by answering the research question. Huntington’s arguments also contrasted with the
relation between religion and nationalism that is presented in Lieven’s theory.
2.1 Methodology
The chapter, which is prepared for the methodology is the basic road map which is required to be
followed in developing the understanding of the studied problem and the way to get the solution
through the adopted road map. In this chapter of the research methodology, the aim of the
researchers is to establish the way for themselves in knowing what to do and how to do. The
answers to the problem will be surely attained by following these road maps and the solution
attained will be used for the description of the data analysis chapter, which will be prepared after
the conduction of data testing and data collection. The data collection methods will be thoroughly
explained and discussed. Let’s develop understanding on the dimensions of this chapter.
The adopted method of analysis for the studying of the radicalization in Islam is being done with
the qualitative method. The qualitative method will be presenting the deep analysis on the topic
analyzed and it will be shedding light on how the radicalization has taken root in Pakistan and
what will be the solution to the problem. This approach is selected to solve the research problem
with the theoretical work. The two theories adopted are Samuel Huntington’s clash of civilizations
theory, focusing primarily on his arguments about Islam, and Anatol Lieven’s religion and
nationalism theory. The investigation will be done through the research question by examining
Huntington’s argument that Islam has bloody borders, with the assumption that his argument is
insufficient in answering the research question. His argument will then be contrasted with the
alternative explanation on the relationship between religion and nationalism presented by Lieven
(De Marchi, & Blaug, 1991).
2.2 Research approaches and design
Design for the research has shown groups of explorers, predictor and explanatory. The design
selection is done over the basis of adopted methodology. The adopted method of analysis is
qualitative and thereby the design chosen for the further analysis is explanatory. The explanatory
14
manner of research design is being elected for the reason of finding a solution to the problem by
explaining each and every step faced in generation and creation of radicalization and its
consequences on the country of Pakistan. With the help of the same design, the explanation will
be given on the methods adopted for solving the issues related to the radicalization and the possible
solution for the ending of radicalization in Pakistan. The mode of research design adopted is based
over the explanatory mode, (Reinharz, & David Mann, 1992). This is due to adopt methodological
approach of qualitative nature. The explanatory approach says that the explanation of the ideology
discussed is being explained in the deepest manner and by exploring the different theories,
(Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949; De Wilde, Bour, Dingemans, Koelman, & Linszen,
2007). The assessment of the radicalization is being explained with the concept discussed by the
theorist of Lieven and Samuel. The mode of explanation is being adopted as deductive. Deductive
method says that the exploration of the research data is being done with the widest and general
manner and the extraction of the specific findings has been done.
The approaches have shown groups of inductive and the deductive. The inductive approach is a
dimension of the research in which the research finds solution to the problem by following the
pattern of general facts from the specific observations. This approach is adopted to make certain
that the researcher will end up in the presentation of the newly evolved theory. The generation of
a new theory is being done with inductive approach. The deductive approach is a dimension of the
research in which the research finds solution to the problem by following the pattern of specific
facts from the general observations. This approach dimension is adopted to make certain that the
researcher will present the outcomes of the research with the adaptation of the available theories.
The generation of no new theory is being done with deductive approach, (De Marchi, & Blaug,
1991). The approach adopted with this research project is deductive and this is chosen so to present
the specific facts of radicalization about Pakistan. Moreover, old theories will be applied so to
derivatives the outcomes.
2.3 Sampling procedures
The grouping of the sampling, which is extracted from the population is done over the probability
and non-probabilities basis. The probability basis selection when made than the research is known
as probability sampling and when the non-probabilistic basis selection when made than the
15
research is known as non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is the technique of
assessment when the probabilities and frequency of occurrence is being allocated to the samples
which are required to be selected. The further breaking of the probability groups has been done as
cluster sampling, quota sampling, random sampling and stratified sampling. Non-Probability
sampling is the technique of assessment when the analytical skills and judgments are being
allocated to the samples which are required to be selected, (Salomon, & Clark, 1977). The further
breaking of the probability groups has been done as judgmental sampling, convenient sampling,
and purposive sampling. The sapling which has been done here is done over the non-probability
based purposive sampling. The purpose established for the selection of the samples is based over
the updated data available about the problem studied. However, at some places it has also become
essential to add the data from the history and thereby purposefully data is being divided and
examined. Samples are the part of the population and they have been studied so to have explored
the research project. The samples extracted from the research problem will be described in the
heading below and they are true representatives of the population, (Salomon, & Clark, 1977) &
(Mertens, 1998). The grouping of the sampling, which is extracted from the population is done
over the probability and non-probabilities basis. The probability basis selection when made than
the research is known as probability sampling and when the non-probability basis selection when
made than the research is known as non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is the
technique of assessment when the probabilities and frequency of occurrence is being allocated to
the samples which are required to be selected. The further breaking of the probability groups has
been done as cluster sampling, quota sampling, random sampling and stratified sampling. Non-
Probability sampling is the technique of assessment when the analytical skills and judgments are
being allocated to the samples which are required to be selected, (Salomon, & Clark, 1977). The
further breaking of the probability groups has been done as judgmental sampling, convenient
sampling, and purposive sampling. The sapling which has been done here is done over the non-
probability based purposive sampling. The purpose established for the selection of the samples is
based over the updated data available about the problem studied. However, at some places it has
also become essential to add the data from the history and thereby purposefully data is being
divided and examined.
16
2.4 Data collection technique
The data collection technique has gained establishment of the groups of primary and secondary
data. The primary data gathered from the primary research conducted is fresh in nature and it has
to undergo the reliability testing. The data are gathered by researchers and is re-designed and used
as per the need of the research. Primary research conduction requires money and time and is
thereby not advisable when the secondary paradigm can be followed. Primary data collection has
been incorporated with the conduction of interviews, surveys, experiments, questionnaire fillings,
focus groups, case studies and etc. The secondary data gathered for the secondary research
conduction is based over the used data. The data are gathered by researchers and is re-designed
and used as per the need of the research. Secondary research conduction does not require much
amount of money and time and is thereby being preferable than the primary research. Secondary
data collection has been incorporated with the review of the economic data, financial figures,
World Bank data, survey reports issued by countries, journals, websites, news reports and channels
and etc., (Reinharz, & David Mann, 1992).
Data collection, which is done here in this report is based over the secondary data. The secondary
data collection will be done from the different websites, journals and reports. The data collection
will be to analyze the data with the observational and thematic approach.
2.5 Data analysis
The analytical approach to the data collected includes the observational and phenomenological.
This approach is based over the explanation of the outcomes by observing what have been done in
the past and developing the phenomenological outcomes out of the derived outcomes. The
assessment is then used to enable the researchers in getting the answers. With the adopted
methodology the aim is to gauge that what are factors causing the radicalization in the Muslims,
how Islamic settings and education system in Pakistan is provoking the negative feelings of hate
for the other people, what have forced people to change their perception and behavioral adaptation
due to the Afghan and US war, what is the perception of the people about radicalization and what
is the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan
government. The assessment is going to help the people in getting the outcomes. With this research
approach the weakness is that the subjective views may add the biasness and it may result in
17
presenting the irrational outcomes, (Reinharz, & David man, 1992). For the logical assessment of
the outcomes, quantitative research approach is the best one, which is not being adopted here.
2.6 Reliability and validity
The testing for the validity and the reliability becomes essential for the primary data and the
primary conducted research. In the secondary data the validity and reliability is already being
examined by previous researchers. The reliability is measured with the statistical software with the
attainment of the value of Cornbach’s alpha. The value of cornbach’s alpha must be near to one
for the provision of the guarantee for the reliable value. The reliability is measured so to guarantee
that examination of the data is also reliable and reliable outcomes are gained. The validity
measurement is done with the consultancy attained from SMEs or subject matter experts,
(Reinharz, & David man, 1992). These experts know about the research and have knowledge to
help others in knowing error free and valid generation of the outcomes. They validate the
questionnaire for the validity and give guarantee for the gaining of the valid data. The validity is
measured so to guarantee that examination of the data is also valid and valid outcomes are gained.
2.7 Weakness of the research method
Weakness linked with the research work is the addition of the qualitative paradigm. The qualitative
paradigm has made this research based over detailed study. The weaknesses associated with this
method is lacking of the analysis of the numeric data and the quantitative figures. The figures must
be analyzed with the quantitative tools like SPSS. There is no logical and rationale association of
the data with the research project. The lacking of the rationality is the issue with the current
research. Moreover, the assessment of the research is also based over the subjective view. The
associated way of qualitative is being enriched with the subjective views and they provide deep
assessment of the problem. Thereby it is lacking in the presentation of the objective view. The
objectivity lacking has made the research limited for having the objective narration of the data.
Lastly, the weakness present in the methodology is about the addition of the biased views,
(Salomon, & Clark, 1977). This has happened due to the subjective nature of the research. There
is no assurance given against not adding the personal and biased views. May be the researchers
used in this work is not valid and reliable and thereby biasness has being occurred in one way or
other.
18
2.8 Data collection technique
The data collection technique has gain establishment from the groups of primary and secondary
data. The primary data gathered for the primary research conduction is fresh in nature and it has
to undergo the reliability testing. The data is gathered by researcher and is re-designed and used
as par the need of the research. Primary research conduction requires money and time and is
thereby not advisable when the secondary paradigm can be followed. Primary data collection has
been incorporated with the conduction of interviews, surveys, experiments, questionnaire fillings,
focus groups, case studies and etc. The secondary data gathered for the secondary research
conduction is based over the used data. The data is gathered by researcher and is re-designed and
used as par the need of the research. Secondary research conduction do not require much amount
of money and time and is thereby is preferable than the primary research. Secondary data collection
has been incorporated with the review of the economic data, financial figures, World Bank data,
survey reports issued by countries, journals, websites, news reports and channels and etc.,
(Reinharz, & David man, 1992).
Data collection which is done here in this report is based over the secondary data. The secondary
data collection will be done from the different websites, journals and reports. The data collection
will be to analyze the data with the observational and thematic approach.
2.9 Conclusion and summary
Suitable method and the pathway to analyze the research project are being discussed in this chapter
of the analysis. There have been three methods of the assessment of the research, which has
inclusion of qualitative, quantitative and mixed approach. The three of the approaches differ from
each other and they all have different analytical techniques. The analysis through quantitative
mode is done with the numeric data, which is quantifiable and can be monitored in the statistical
manner. This has enabled the researchers to reach towards the objective outcomes. The analysis
through qualitative mode is done with the deep reviews taken from the people associated with the
problem. This has enabled the researchers to reach towards the subjective outcomes. The analysis
19
through mixed mode is done with the numeric data and with the deep reviews taken from the
people linked with the problem. This has enabled the researchers to reach towards the objective
and subjective, both outcomes. The adopted approach for the assessment is the qualitative
approach. This approach is selected to solve the research problem with the theoretical work. The
two theories adopted are Samuel Huntington’s clash of civilizations theory, focusing primarily on
his arguments about Islam, and Anatol Lieven’s religion and nationalism theory. The investigation
will be done through the research question by examining Huntington’s argument that Islam has
bloody borders, with the assumption that his argument is insufficient in answering the research
question. His argument will then be contrasted with the alternative explanation on the relationship
between religion and nationalism presented by Lieven.
The mode of research design adopted is based over the explanatory mode. This is due to adopted
methodological approach of qualitative nature. The explanatory approach says that the explanation
of the ideology discussed is being explained in the deepest manner and by exploring the different
theories. The assessment of the radicalization is being explained with the concept discussed by the
theorist of Lieven and Samuel. The mode of explanation is being adopted as deductive. Deductive
says that the exploration of the research data is being done with the widest and general manner and
the extraction of the specific findings has been done.
The collection of data is being categorized as the primary and the secondary modes. The primary
mode is the way to collect the fresh data and use it for the exploration of the specific outcomes.
Primary mode for the data collection include the experimentation, surveys, interviews, focus group
etc. the secondary mode is the way to collect the second handed which is used by others. Secondary
mode for the data collection includes the financial data of companies, the economic surveys,
journals, research papers and others. Here the collection of the data is being with the secondary
mode. This is done by exploring the different theories shared by Lieven and Samuel and added by
others.
The analytical approach for the data collected includes the observational and phenomenological.
This approach is based over the explanation of the outcomes by observing what have been done in
the past and developing the phenomenological outcomes out of the derived outcomes. The
assessment is then used to enable the researchers in getting the answers. With the adopted
20
methodology the aim is to give that what are factors causing the radicalization in the Muslims,
how Islamic settings and education system in Pakistan is provoking the negative feelings of hate
for the other people, what have forced people to change their perception and behavioral adaptation
due to the Afghan and US war, what is the perception of the people about radicalization and what
is the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan
government. The assessment is going to help the people in getting the outcomes. With this research
approach the weakness is that the subjective views may add the biasness and it may result in
presenting the irrational outcomes. For the logical assessment of the outcomes, quantitative
research approach is the best one, which is not being adopted here.
21
Chapter 3
3. Introduction
The assessment of the history of the radicalization is required to be tested and evaluated with the
different theories, theoretical framework, empirical evidences and conceptual ideology. This
chapter has briefly shed light over each of the factors.
3.1 Historical background
a. Radicalization –causes and enabling factors
When Pakistan got independence in 1947, many of the religious groups in subcontinent were agai
nst the idea of division of subcontinent because they disliked the orientation of the leaders of Mu
slim League (which supported the idea for partition of subcontinent) and also thought that they ha
d more capabilities to proselytize in India than Muslim League. However Pakistan was created to
protect the interests and rights of Muslims living in the Indian subcontinent, the political party de
spite being secular used the name of Islam during their freedom movement in order to galvanize a
nd mobilize the people. The founder of Pakistan Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1876- 1948) and many o
ther leaders were highly liberal and educated people who committed themselves for creating a de
mocratic Muslim state called Pakistan and not a theological state. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1
898), the leader who provided a platform to Muslims living in Indian subcontinent by establishin
g Aligarh University and Allama Iqbal (1877-1938), the philosopher and poet who presented the i
dea of establishing Pakistan, were both enlightened and progressive leaders. The message and phi
losophy of Allama Iqbal is apparent through one of his popular verses which means “the belief of
the mullah is to spread anarchy in the name of Allah”.
Mohammad Ali Jinnah in his 1st address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan declared in clea
r terms that people may belong to any caste, religion or creed, the State has nothing to do with thi
s. It is interesting to note that numerous political leaders who were around Jinnah belonged to the
minor sects of Muslims. Mohammad Ali Jinnah himself belonged to Ithna Ashari Shia sect of Mu
slim. Other important personalities of British India that belonged to minor sects of Muslims inclu
22
de Raja Ghazanfar Ali Khan, Raja Mohammad Ameer Khan, MAH Ispahani, Lady Nusrat Haroo
n, Seth Mohammad Ali Habib (creator of Habib Bank) and Prince Karim Aga khan (the leader of
Shia Ismaili sect) .Sir Zafarullah Khan, the 1st foreign minister of Pakistan and a stalwart of freed
om movement was a follower of Ahmadi sect (which was declared to be outside of Islam in the y
ear 1973 by the legislature of Pakistan). At that time, the religious identity of these personalities d
id not matter.
Instead of following the guidelines given by the leaders who participated in freedom movement, t
he Pakistan’s 1st constituent assembly argued and debated over the identity of the country and fin
ally resorted to Islam in order to establish national unity. Pakistan which was initially established
as a federation aimed to mend 6 ethnic groups together, however when this objective was announ
ced publicly, only the religious parties who claimed to be most potent and qualified demanded to
make this state an Islamic state. Since then, the religious and clergy political parties claimed their
right of defining the identity of Pakistan and started recommending constitutional provisions in o
rder to establish the Pakistan’s new constitution which is ‘Islamic’ in form as well as spirit. In the
initial three decades from 1947 to 1977, they has minimal success, however the political strength
of religious parties increased and they expanded their organization during these years.
The initial signs of radicalization were obvious in the 1st decade of establishment of Pakistan in th
e year 1953 in the form of anti-Ahmadi group in Punjab. This will be discussed later in more deta
il. In the year 1977, the emergence of General Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq in the political scenario w
as helpful in redefining Pakistan. General Zia-ul-Haq declared clearly that Pakistan will collapse i
f you make it a secular state by taking out Islam from Pakistan. The religious parties were glad to
hear this and saw a ‘messiah’ in Zia-ul-Haq who can bring transformation in Pakistan from above
and help in their efforts to make Pakistan an Islamic state which failed initially. Unlike Sufism, a
n enlightening, egalitarian and soft message that initially introduced Islam to the people of subco
ntinent, the clerical Islam as taught by the religious parties in Pakistan was dogmatic, intrusive an
d conservative in spirit. This view resulted in the radicalization of religious identity.
It remains a highly contested question that Pakistan should adopt what sort of polity Islamic or lib
eral democratic. This quest of shaping the state of Pakistan resulted in addition of another dimens
ion to the political and religious polarization. The problem of rights of minority and civil liberties
23
faced a great setback in this entire process of choosing the identity. The crisis of identity faced by
the state as well as the society has generated an empty space for religious activism as well as resu
ltant radicalization. President Pervez Musharraf during his rule from 1999 to 2008 tried to suppor
t those factors that believed in progressive and liberal Pakistan, but his conflicting agendas and le
gitimacy were questioned again and again. Numerous dictatorial regimes that were liberal in orie
ntation resulted in more political radicalization by shutting doors that lead to democracy.
B. Religious Radicalization: The State Sponsorship Gone wrong
As described above in political radicalization, the religious parties joined the public domain slow
ly and gradually. During these years, the state used the antagonism between Muslims and Hindus
to establish a distinctive identity of the newly formed state. In this rivalry within the state, religio
n behaved as a context. This it did not result in radicalization but it caused marginalization of sec
tarian as well as religious minorities who resided in Pakistan. To prove this point, relevant refere
nces from historical events are given.
In Afghanistan, the Mujahedeen were never decommissioned. These Mujahedeen created chaos i
n Pakistan after their successful jihad in Afghanistan. Radicalization of society resulted from thes
e foreign entanglements which had bad consequences for Pakistan. The ideals and idea that were
carefully propagated and framed for inspiring the militants and Mujahedeen to fight in Afghanist
an and Kashmir have come to Pakistan in the recent years because of the spread of 'jihadi' materi
als and literature which did not remain limited to certain geographic zone or people.
Since the creation of Pakistan, the country considered itself as a state which has severe threats fro
m the neighboring country India. India had grudgingly admitted the existence of Pakistan and its
prospects of survival. The foreign and domestic policies of Pakistan were driven by the fear of In
dia. In the current situation, the India's growing relationship with Afghanistan and its investments
in a country destroyed by war are looked upon by great suspicion by the security forces in Pakista
n. It is thought that India is planning to encircle Pakistan. A recent poll conducted in 2012 in the p
roject named Global Attitudes Project by Pew Research Centre showed that a number of Pakistan
24
i's believed that India is a greater threat than Taliban despite of the clear evidence of Taliban and
the associated group terrorist activities all over Pakistan taking place in the recent years.
The massive military spending by Pakistan is because of this way of thinking. Instead of establish
ing schools, hospitals, buildings and dams for making electricity, the government of Pakistan inv
ested a great amount of money in buying submarines, heavy guns and fighter aircraft. The militar
y has expanded its role and work far beyond the requirements of national security. The military in
fact has a controlling interest in political economy of Pakistan which only demands hold on powe
r. The scarcity of resources for proper development has created dissatisfaction among people and
numerous people have adopted radicalization because of the inability of state to fulfil their needs.
The involvement of Pakistan in the Jihad by Afghanistan in 1980s resulted in similar problems. I
n order to sponsor and support young militants to fight against Soviet army in Afghanistan, a net
work of madrassa was rapidly established in Pakistan. This was financed largely by the Gulf and
Arab countries so that they can create new militants for this battlefield. The prime recruits in thes
e madrassa were the children’s of Pashtuns and Afghan refugees of tribal belt and KPP in Pakista
n.
According to Kamal Matinuddin, a retired general in Pakistan, General Zia ul Haq created a chai
n of madrassas along the border of Pakistan and Afghanistan in order to establish a belt of studen
ts who were religiously oriented so that they can assist the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan to kick ou
t Soviet from Afghanistan. The Afghan struggle was supported by Arabs because of geopolitics.
They were afraid of the expanding influence of Soviet as well as the empowerment and uprising o
f Shia in 1979 in Iran, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanya
m, 2013).
Clear evidences are available that the Disband and Ahle Hadith who constituted about thirty perc
ent of Pakistani Sunni population greatly benefited from these establishments. When Pakistan ca
me into being in 1947, there were only136 madrassas but it has increased to 30,000 in the recent
years. According to an estimate, in the year 1947, there were 245 madrassas in West Pakistan. Th
e number of madrassas increased to 2861 in the year 1988. During the time period of 1988 to 200
0, there was a further increase in madrassas of 136%. Deobandis owned the largest number of ma
drassas that is about 64% whereas Bareli owns about 25% madrassas. Ahle Hadith owns 6% of m
25
adrassas. There is a phenomenal increase in total number of madrassas of Ahle Hadith. In the yea
r 1988 they owned 134 madrassas which rose to 310 in the year 2000, a rise of about 131%. This
rise in number of Ahle Hadith madrassas was due to the support of Gulf and Saudi Arab.
Furthermore, numerous religious warriors were brought from all across the Muslim countries. Th
is effort was done intelligently. After all Afghanistan did not had Mecca for which the Muslims w
ould oblige to defend. Numerous secular regimes in Arab were happy to get rid of the extremists
who participated in militant opposition groups which planned to overthrow the local regimes. Th
e invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet was a great opportunity for the Arab groups who were close t
o U.S to export these troublemakers for their own good or to redirect their anger from domestic si
tuations to foreign situations namely Soviet. The ISI (Inter-Services Intelligence) of Pakistan had
to become central player in this regards.
In this whole situation, Pakistan became radicalized itself. The capital of KPP, Peshawar became
the headquarters for Mujahedeen and one of the commanders was Osama bin Laden who resided
in this city. The manager of Service Bureau and Abdullah Azam who was the mentor of Osama i
n Mujahedeen group established their network in the city of Peshawar which also included charit
y organizations and a publication house. Al-jihad, the magazines by Mujahedeen are still availabl
e in some of the bookstores of Peshawar. When the Soviet forces were withdrawn from Afghanis
tan, thousands of militants who were trained and experienced were left in Pakistan which is estim
ated to be around 40,000 to 60,000 jihadi. It is hard to produce such militants but decommissioni
ng them is much harder than creating them. Rather than stopping their activities when the mission
was achieved, the militants spread their materials and literature and this was largely controlled by
Saudi Arab who joined them in the jihad. This made them more powerful and articulate. Accordi
ng to Abu Mus'ab Al Suri, the strategist of Al-Qaeda, all the ongoing debate and discussion durin
g the years of Afghan Jihad spread quickly to the other Muslim countries through leaflets, books,
visitors, couriers, communiques and audiocassettes. According to a Pakistani intellectual named S
uroosh Irfani, the al Suri's publications in Peshawar called the 'Experience and Lesson of Islamic
Jihad Revolution' published in 1991 signaled the internalization of these Arabs in Pakistan. The s
hift of Arabs in Pakistan played a central role in the radicalization of Pakistan society.
26
After 1988, some of the militant groups who fought in Afghanistan shifted the focus of their grou
p to Kashmir with the help of intelligence services in Pakistan. Lashkar-e-taiba which means the
Army of pure, was a group of militants who was based in Pakistan and supported insurgency in K
ashmir was formed during these years. The purpose of Lashkar e taiba was to attack the Indian fo
rces deployed in Kashmir. However Pervez Musharraf banned the activities of this group in Kash
mir after the attack of terrorists in U.S.A on 11th September 2001 but some of the militants went
underground whereas others joined their sister organization called Jamaat-Ud-Dawa. This is a gro
up of militants that runs charities and religious centers.
27
Chapter 4
Literature review
4. Introduction
Review of the literatures has become crucial to see that how previous authors have worked in
reviewing the work and what they have found with the similar context of the study. It is also based
over the ideological creation for the development of the logical framework with the gap
identification.
4.1 The Radicalization Process
A lot of research has been done, theories have been flout and people have written about the causes
and motivations behind becoming a terrorist. After empirical research there is one consistent
finding that there is no particular “terrorist profile “and who or why a person becomes a terrorist
cannot be predicted, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam,
2013). Unlike the early theories it is completely ruled out that people suffering from some sort of
mental disorder can only be associated with terrorist activities, as stated by Biloslavo, (2004).
Horrible acts of terrorism are not only committed by “crazy” people. The prevalence of mental
illness in between the imprisoned terrorists is much lower than the general population according
to studies. The profile of a classic psychopath is rarely matched by a terrorist who commits horrible
acts of violence. Not necessarily they are lower socioeconomically from their peers nor not even
less educated, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013).
1. It has been agreed upon by intelligent agencies, social scientists and law enforcement
organizations that a dynamic process known as “radicalization” produces terrorists. One of our
country’s most senior terrorist scholars Brian Jenkins, explains radicalization as, adopting a system
of radical believes and also try to impose them on others and committing to them without the fear
of the rest of the society”, (Shehzad, 2013).
2. The compulsive behavior for use of violence on the rest of the society for the imposition of their
believes, giving punishment for their “evil actions” is the final stage in the process of
radicalization, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013).
The thing which distinguishes a terrorist from other extremists is the commitment to violence.
28
How people see the world and themselves living in it can be caused by a fundamental change
which occurs over a long period of time, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013). This process is still poorly
understood in exact nature. None of the theories are tested empirically but conceptual models and
different theories have been developed by researchers that explain the route of a person in
becoming radicalized. From the beginning to the end of this process moat of them see three to five
stages, from initial exposure through indoctrination, training, and then violent actions. Though,
different terminologies are used to explain and identify these stages, these stages are
conceptualized differently by different researchers. However, it is agreed broadly that when the
process of radicalization stars not all the stages are crossed by people to become a terrorist. The
violence which is typical to militant jihadists in order to become terrorists many people stop short
of it, (Waghmar, 2013).
Violent jihadism is the base of our focus here, and in particular those numerous characteristics of
the procedure of radicalization on which consensus have been made. As the causes of terrorism
have not been identified by the researchers, three vulnerabilities have been recognized by them
that probably endorse violence, or provide the source of its motivation, as stated by Biloslavo,
(2004). These vulnerabilities are:
Perceived Injustice or Humiliation: it may be perceived that the remedy of humiliation or in
justice is violent attacks, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, &
Subrahmanyam, 2013).
Needfor Identity: in search of someone’s own identity a person can be attracted to any extremist
organization to become a terrorist in a variety of ways. A person who is searching for a goal or
purpose in life can take any actions to achieve that goal. In the process of succeeding at something
which can make a difference violent act can be seen as the method. Those who feel the stress and
complexity is overwhelming to navigate in this complicated world are often attracted to the
absolutist “black and white” idea. A person might choose to define his or her identity by
associating itself with a terrorist group or organization simply to discern any personal meaning
without any struggle, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013).
Need for Belonging: A sense of belonging, affiliation ant connectedness can be felt by many
prospective terrorists in fundamental extremist group. One researcher describes, that the initial
29
attraction can be the association to a group of common believes rather than committing any
horrible act of violence or abstract ideology, (Roy, 2002).
3. For its own sake terrorism is not random act of violence. An ideology provides the rules for
one’s behavior which ends in violence. A set of common and broadly believed rules is known as
an ideology which helps in regulation or determination of a person’s behavior, (Jones, &
O'Donnell, 2012).
4. Long term positive rewards and outcomes which are anticipated are often linked by these rules.
The characteristic of violent jihad is suicide attack based on this. Access to paradise is allegedly
gained by killing the infidels, (Waghmar, 2013).
5. In its substance the ideology is very different that support militant jihad from other types of
terrorism or extremism like eco-terrorism or white supremacy groups. However four features are
common in them, (Rashid, 2011). They are:
Polarized: their mindset is “us vs. them”. They more think about their own selves rather than the
other people. They use other people for their own interest and thereby assures the working of their
mindsets for their private use. The explanation of the polarized system is being given by Singer,
(2001). It is the education given by the madrassas for dividing the entire society between us and
them. They divide the society and the religious lines and thereby break the ideology in which
society is being created and the country is being founded.
The major act in the madrassas is to divide the society among us and them. These madrassa divide
the society on the basis of the religious lines and also breaks the ideology over which the society
is being formed and the country has been founded, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman,
2010). The most of the poor, jobless, uneducated and frustrated youths become prey of these
madrassas and make their lives turn in to disrespect and hate in society, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro,
2010).
Absolutist: sometimes supported by sacred authority, the truth in its absolute sense is believed.
This squashes dissent, questioning and critical thinking. Moral authority is added in us vs. them to
make it good vs. evil, as stated by Biloslavo, (2004).
30
Threat-Oriented: Cooperation is caused in groups by external threats. This is intuitively known
by good leaders. It is persistently reminded to their adherents that “us” are threatened by “them”.
Because it is seen in its absolute sense that “us’ are good and noble and this also works as an
opposition to non-believers and causes cohesion, (Jones, & O'Donnell, 2012) & (Roy, 2002).
Hateful: Violent actions are energized by hate. Direct action is impelled on principled opposition.
Facilitation to different mechanisms of dehumanization and disengagement is provided which
helps in the erosion of physiological and social barriers in engaging violence. It is an important
point in support of distinguishing a simple extremist from a violent terrorist, (John, 2003).
6. The threat is described in the section on The Militant Jihadist Terrorism Threat. Study on 117
homegrown jihadists in UK and USA is done empirically which described the manifestation of the
radical process. This can help in establishing how far a person has come in the process of
radicalization, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013).
In the early stage, only ideological interpretations are trusted of the rigid set of religious authorities.
Significant impact is put on others how to interpret what their faith demands, groom different
scholars and role models, as stated by Bishoyi (2013) & Roy (2002).
Also in early stage, Muslim faith’s legislated interpretation is adopted. For virtually every aspect
of one’s life there are rules to be followed and not only for the practice of faith. For example it is
considered sinful for women to laugh in the street or taking pictures or to play music. In the final
stage of radicalization in order to advance in faith it is an obligation for believers to take an action
of violence against infidels, (Jones, & O'Donnell, 2012).
A fundamental conflict is perceived between the Islam and the west by the Muslims as they become
more radicalized. It becomes ideologically critical to be loyal; they cannot have any kind of loyalty
to any non-Muslim state their only obligation is to Islam. It is considered a violation of Allah’s
rules even to participate in democratic process of one’s country because these rules are made by
man, (Hashmi, 2010) & (Weinbaum, 2013).
Any other alternative interpretations or practices have very low tolerance except from the rigid
interpretation of Islam. It becomes a compulsion to impose your own beliefs on friends and family
members after changing one’s own beliefs. It is seen as a personal affront any deviation from these
31
rigid interpretations by others, (Rashid, 2011). It is normally expressed in the form that other
people are not practicing and good Muslim which usually ends up in violence. It separates
individual from the people who were first an important part of their lives but they start to hate them
as they are not practicing Muslims, as stated by Bishoyi (2013).
In the later stages, religious and political believes are included in the process of radicalization. It
is believed by the radicals that to subjugate Islam morally western powers have conspired. Muslim
world was once ruled by the teachings of Allah under the caliphate rule they want to restore all
that, (Dorschner, & Sherlock, 2009).
It should be remembered that it is not illegal in United States to express radical or extremist’s
views. Until it reaches the advance stages like engaging one’s self in any act of violence or other
illegal behavior. A stricter standard of allegiance to the United States applies on a person who
holds a U.S. Government security clearance or some other position of public trust. As described
in The Militant Jihadist Terrorism Threat advocacy of militant jihadist is ground for denial or
revocation of a security clearance or access to other sensitive information or installations if it is
cleared by evidence of an absence of loyalty to the United States, (Weinbaum, 2013) & (Shezad,
2013).
4.2 Radicalization in Pakistan
Radical Islam began showing its influence in Pakistan during 1979 When Afghan Jihad started
against Soviet forces in Afghanistan and has since become an important factor in the conflict,
resulting in several unconventional attacks on Pakistani Army targets and the fragmentation of the
separatist movement of Baluchistan, (Ahrari, 2000). The terrorist tactics and radical beliefs of a
number of Pakistani Taliban are unprecedented in Pakistan, but contrary to popular belief, radical
Islam is embraced only by a minority of the population, (Chellaney, 2006). Believers of radical
Islam to be widespread than it actually is due to the high level of participation and publicity of this
minority in the conflict. Additionally, Pakistani practice a form of Sunni Islam with Sufi
influences, and Sufis and Wahhabis have never had harmonious relations, (Roy, 2002).
Societal transformation is a continuous process and it does not depend on the single factor. The
phenomena of the transformation are being linked with the internal and external factors. Internally,
32
the religious disharmony, failing economy, education system, and dysfunctional government
bodies are the. Externally, the clashes of the civilization and the generation of the war and anti-
west sentiments are the reasons for the adopted policies and socio economic conditions, (Fair,
Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). So in this assessment of the analytical work the analysis of the factors
causing the radicalization in the Muslims have been intended to analyze. Moreover, the assessment
is planned to base over exploration of factors which has resulted in expanding the perception of
the people about radicalization, (Nasr, S. V. 2002). It is also intended to explore that what have
forced people to change their perception and behavioral adaptation due to the Afghan and US war,
especially after 1979. In addition, the need is to explore that how Islamic settings and education
system in Pakistan is provoking the negative feelings of hate for the other people. In addition, this
work has also set its focus over explaining the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the
adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan government.
4.3 Exclusive Islamic Identity and Youth Radicalization
The formation of Pakistan was specifically designed as an Islamic state from the British rule. It
was later more endorsed by Zia-ul-Haq in the 80’s. He encouraged among Pakistani youth and
adults the spread of individual exclusivist identities, (Dorschner, & Sherlock, 2009). Political and
religious groups that seek to define themselves in alignment with Islam are furthered by
radicalization, including indigenous culture in opposition to all else, (Weinbaum, 2013).
The Lahore youth conducted some surveys in which 88 percent of elite school students stated that
religion is their primary identity. Youngsters of Pakistan high level of recognition with their
religious beliefs 50 percent said that their national identity is above their religious identity. 15
percent identified themselves as Pakistani where as 75 percent identified them as Muslims. Most
of them said that their religion is far more important than their country. This kind of homogenized
and extreme point of view can lead to violence in the name of Islam, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013) &
(Hashmi, 2010).
The “Enabling Environment” for Radicalization
Violent terrorist acts are embedded in larger social and political milieu and are not an act of single
person who works in isolation, (De Sousa, 2011). Radicalization can be explained in the form of a
33
pyramid, like on the top there are active terrorists, in the middle there are religious political
organizations and in the end there are missionary Islamic organizations, (Dorschner, & Sherlock,
2009). The links between these three stages create an “enabling environment” that enhances an
Islamic based identity, the radicalization of youth is used for militant purpose.
These linkages can be categorized into three basic models
 The encapsulating model, whereby an entire social network has been mobilized to form a large
organizational form, encapsulating all three levels of the pyramid. For example, the Jamaat-
ud-Dawa acts as a proselytizing actor with a network of mosques and educational institutions,
as well as a service oriented NGO; it has increasingly taken on a political role through its
messaging on culture and politics, while its militant role as the banned Lashkar-e-Taiba has
been well documented, (De Sousa, 2011).
The loosely-coupled model, where a shared space facilitates interaction between nominal
sympathizers, supporters and militant actors, (Cohen, 2004). For example, a mosque or large
congregations of missionary organizations, such as the Tableeghi Jamaat, allows for literatures of
all levels to be distributed, and political and militant activists have the opportunity to interact with
lower level sympathizers, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, &
Subrahmanyam, 2013).
 The bridge model, where one organization bridges the initial pool of sympathizers with more
militant organizations. As an example, the Jamiat-Ulema-e-Islam (JUI) is a religious-political
party which acts as the political representative of the large Deobandis mosque-madrasa
network, composed of various missionary organizations, (Shezad, 2013) & (Hashmi, 2010). It
also acts both as an ideological guide as well as a channel for youth volunteers to join Taliban
militant actors. During the 1990s, for example, the JUI-S faction led by Maulana Sami-ul Haq
closed its madrasa schools to allow students to participate in the Afghan civil war alongside
the Afghan Taliban. Similarly, the Jamaat-e-Islami both has a strong national student
organization, the Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba, and is connected with militant organizations such as
Hizbul-Mujahedeen, (De Sousa, 2011).
34
Although the methods used by missionary organization might seem peaceful so it is more likely
that their message is more acceptable in youth and it is believed that these religious organizations
are absolute.
For instance missionary organizations like Al-Huda the female based or tableeghi jammat which
is male based has the most reach in general youth, they have the potential to the receptiveness of
youth, through the rejection of indigenous ethnic, national or tribal identities as well as foreign
cultural and political signifiers groups by reinforcing messages of a primarily Islamic identity, and
the rejection of pluralistic politics may contribute to alignment with more radical organizations,
(Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013).
Jammat e islami and JUI are the religious parties who have participated in the electoral process of
the state, and have maintained an cordial relationship with the government but still in some selected
situations endorsing violent jihad for example the Pakistani policies on Kashmir and Afghanistan
in 80’s and 90’. Tahreek- e -Taliban Pakistan and Lashkar e jhangvi are a few of the examples of
most militant organizations who take their stance to the extreme level in order to impose their kind
of Islam, (De Sousa, 2011) & (Cohen, 2004). According to these militants to achieve a general
goal for imposing an Islamic based government not only in Muslim countries but in the whole
world a revolutionary action must be taken. Intra Isla-mist violence is raised in order to lead to
power, and it also leads to sectarian differences. Pakistan is known to give space to much religious
organization to operate, operate recruit and mobilize and even in some cases some active sectarian
militant organizations, (Shehzad, 2013).
In order to support regional policy objectives in neighboring Afghanistan or India has helped build
a resource for the Pakistani military’s historical practice of selective support for certain militant
actors for not just militant but also nonmilitant organizations serving bridging or encapsulating
roles, (De Sousa, 2011).
In a vibrant free market today, there exist 232 religious organizations and militants groups within
the country having their head offices in Lahore and Punjab. Approximately 71 in Lahore and 100
in Punjab alone. Establishing parallel educational or training institutions, some militant groups
operate openly in the country, distributing published materials and media collecting or extorting
financial donations, (Rashid, 2011) & (Kalra, & Butt, 2013). By low levels of public education
35
provision the state’s education system also facilitates these groups, who are often able to fill a
vacuum left. To draw youth from lower ends of the radicalization ”pyramid” upward toward active
militancy the strength of these organizations leads to better marketing and recruitment,
(Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013).
4.4 Madrassa education: a threat to peace and tolerance
The explanation of the polarized system is being given by Nasr, (2000). It is the education given
by the madrassas for dividing the entire society between us and them. They divide the society and
the religious lines and thereby break the ideology in which society is being created and the country
is being founded.
Traditional the madrassas are the source of all the kinds of the knowledge transferred to the
Muslims. They educate the Muslim students about the science subject and about the religion. In
the current time, the role of madrassas has remained related only to teach the children about the
religious education. In the countries like Pakistan, the madrassas are not properly governed and
administered and that has become reason for provoking the elements like extremisms, (Fair,
Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). The uncontrolled madrassas and education given by those madrassas
are dated back to 1980s when the Saudi Arabia and USA has poured almost $4 billion for the
establishment of the religious schools and madrassa, (Tellis, 2004). Since that time, madrassas
have become the breeding ground of the religious extremism creation in Pakistan and have made
the security condition in the country even worse.
Pakistan has to face acute security issue. In order to tackle these issues, one of the ways is to take
step in taming the religious education and its quality. The chief purpose of the education is to make
the people enlighten so that understanding about the various issues of the country can be prevailed
and prepare the people in distinguishing among the right and the wrong things, (Woodward,
Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). But this is not the scenario in Pakistan, as it was supposed
by US commission over the International Religious Freedom, (Atran, 2010). It is being explored
that almost every madrassa in Pakistan has religious biasness that has leaded towards the maligns
of the minority groups and societal intolerance, (Jaffrelot, 2002).
36
Huge numbers of the Pakistanis are living in the small villages and towns. They have to face the
feudalism, poverty, lacking of the awareness and illiteracy problem. These issues have left two
conditions for these people. First is to abandon the education of their kids and second is to make
them induct in the religious schools. Majority of the madrassa preach the students free, they also
provide lodging and the boarding services for their students, (Singer, 2001). That is the mere reason
for the hijacking of the minds of the youngsters and hypnotizing it with the extremism. It is quite
important that government must articulate the education presented and taught in these madrassas
so to prevent the hate and war in the religion, (Nasr, 2004). It is also being seen that in the normal
schools of Pakistan Jihad-Bis-Saif or fighting with the sort is being given emphasized by Islam
instead of provoking the preaching of Islam about purity, peace and submission to Allah and His
people. The wars fought in the history have been given proper context in the text books,
(Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010).
It is being highlighted from the study conducted by Roy, (2002), that most of the sectarian schools
are getting their back and support from Iran and Saudi Arabia and they have resulted in dividing
the society of Pakistan in to numerous sects. This has resulted in increasing the sectarian violence
in Pakistan and has also increased the killing of thousands of citizens in the name of Shia and
Sunni conflicts. The reason for this blood shed is again due to madrassas and their preaching that
only the path followed by them is correct and they are only having right religious beliefs and the
ways, (Haider, 2005).
They have declared the followers of other sects as Non-Muslims or Kefirs and this is the normal
practice seen in the majority of religious madrassas where they have target the young children as
their audience. It is said that the religious extremism is being hit in majority of the nations and has
become serious threat and also effecting Pakistan since years. The need is to tackle this problem
as soon as it is possible or else the effect will be adverse and will push Pakistan in the Stone Age.
The major act in the madrassas is to divide the society among us and them. These madrassa divide
the society on the basis of the religious lines and also breaks the ideology over which the society
is being formed and the country has been founded. The most of the poor, jobless, uneducated and
frustrated youths become prey of these madrassas and make their lives turn in to disrespect and
hate in society, (Roy, 2002). There are almost thousands of the madrassas in Pakistan which is
working illegally and they are not registered yet. The numbers of unregistered madrassas in
37
Islamabad is approximately 83 which are established in the mosques and the seminaries. It is the
matter of great thinking that how many youths are taking education in these madrassas and what
type of education is being provided to them. The minds of these young students are like wet clay,
thus it can be easily molded in to the shapes as desired by the extremists, (Woodward,
Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). In majority of the madrassas these minds are molded in
the negative stance and as the youngsters are the real pillar of the economy and the country thus
there negative development is making them rust on the entire nation. The figures shared by
MacDonald, (2003) & Haider, (2005) of unregistered madrassas are almost 80,000 and they have
millions of students in their hands which are turning as the religious extremists, (Islam, 1981). It
is required by the government of Pakistan to take bold action in banning these misguided
madrassas in the country. Also, the revision is required in their curriculum and proper education
system’s establishment. The government bodies are responsible to form the educational institutes
with their own designed and controlled curriculum. The madrassas are also required to get
registered with the state government and there firing and hiring process must be governed by the
state’s government. In addition, the entire curriculum of the normal schools must also be taken
over by the government, (Davis, 2008). There must be teaching of peace and tolerance in the
schools. It should be their tag lines and they must make their students acceptable to the tolerance
and make them know about the real picture of Islam and its preaching, (Lall, 2008) & (Hafez,
2003). For changing the entire society, the need is to add more of the chapters about Islam and
more emphasize is required to be given to the education of real meaning of jihads, tolerance and
jihad Bin-Nafs or jihad within oneself. It is also required to establish a universal curriculum in the
country which must be taught to all the sects of the country. Within which the curriculum for the
religious schools must also be taught and importance of Islam and its preaching must be
strengthened. There must also be emphasized given on the education of science as it is attained by
many of the Muslim scholars, (MacDonald, 2003).
With uniformity in the education system, there will be removal of the division among the sectarian
and the religious basis. The madrassas will become place to give wide ideology to the young
students and tend to spread oneness in the society and also tend to stop immoral subjects like
unacceptability and intolerance so to rule it out from the society, (Davis, 2008) & (Islam, 1981).
In addition, the madrassas have to go under modernization so that they do not appear as alien to
38
the other people who have accepted them as a place of generating the extremist in the society,
(Irfani, 2004).
The general mindset of the people who are sending their kids in madrassas are deemed to be
backward and they are not much aware about the scientific progress. This has become one of the
chief reasons for reforming and removing of the exposure in those people about the new ideas and
the using of the new and modern teaching methods and subjects, (Esposito, 2002). In this domain,
a scenario is shared by a teacher of Baluchistan that his students are not ready to accept the utility
of English subject due to which he has to face biggest challenge. Most of the students have
perception that by learning Islamic they will directly reach to heaven. There is no motive there to
learn English and thereby they are not convinced to acquire English learning knowledge, (Ayyub,
1979) & (Rascoff, 2012). In some of the countries like Pakistan, the religious institutions are also
engaged in the social working. However, madrassas of Pakistan has not shown involvement in the
offering of the social services beside the impartment of education. The examples of social services
can be seen in the temples of India where they render free medical services as the inoculat ion
campaign and they also allow government to use their place for raising of the health awareness in
the people, (Zahab, 2002) & (Roy, 2002). Whistle in madrassas the main concern is of continuous
curriculum reforms only. They are more bothered to translate their some of the books from English
to Urdu so that theirs students can easily understand the relevancy. The major purpose of this
translation is to assure that the students can have better understanding of the new knowledge plus
they can implement this knowledge in to their lives and they can also actively take part in the
development of the country, (Esposito, 2002) & (Reetz, 2009).
4.5 Education in modern regular schools
Regular school is opened to embrace the new changes, especially in the introduction of the new
curricula in to their modern educational designs. The demands of the regular schools are of skilled
and trained teachers so that they can teach the difficult subjects in science and English, (Ashour,
2011) & (Murshed, & Pavan, 2011). Regular schools also motivate the students to pursue higher
education in the universities along with the Islamic studies so to have balanced information about
world and religion. On the other hand, the madrassas’ students are taught with the Arabic, Islamic
studies and Persian as well. They have been provided by the curriculum issued by United Nations
39
mandated University for Peace, Costa Rica in the Islamic context. The curriculum has been
developed and deployed in consultation of the Islamic scholars in 2005 to 2007. This curriculum
is mostly implemented in the south Asian madrassas of Bangladesh and Pakistan and they have
integrated this curriculum with their existing one, (GITHENS‐MAZER, & Lambert, 2010).
Education is important ingredient for growth and development of the entire nation. With the use
of education and information system, nations have successfully acquired prosperity and
development, (Wilner, & Dubouloz, 2010) & (Ahmad, 2005). The economic and human both
developments are assured with the investment made in the attainment of the education. But in
Pakistan, it is a biggest challenge. The regular education system of Pakistan is being rotten due to
the rate of literacy has reached up to 55% (2012 and 2013 report). The education system of Pakistan
has to undergo many challenges and crisis and some of the major problems are identified.
There is being division of the students in to the two segments in the educational system of Pakistan.
The division of the regular schools has been seen in the private schools that are mostly English
mediums and the other is in Government schools, which are mostly Urdu medium. This has
become one of the major reasons for the bad and poor educational system in the country, (Murshed,
& Pavan, 2011). Also one of the core reasons which have been seen in the difference in the
educational system is the gender biasness. People of Pakistan have conservative mind set and they
feel reluctant to send their girls in the schools for the acquiring of the education. Due to this reason,
ratio of the boys and the girls in the primary schools has been seen as 10:4, (Wilner, & Dubouloz,
2010).
According to the report of Human Development, Pakistan is having 136th position with 49.9% of
the educated population. The report of UNESCO has showed the rank of Pakistan on 113th position
out of 120 for the education member in UN. The ethnic, economic and the socio-political crisis in
the country have tended to affect the normal educational system in Pakistan. In addition, the quality
of the education that has been provided to the students is also very bad. The teachers of the
government schools are not trained, (GITHENS‐MAZER, & Lambert, 2010). Those people, who
fail to get the job in any sector, try to get their job in educational institutes. And the reason as they
are not trained, they become unable to train the entire nation. The attention is also required in the
teaching of the rural areas where departments lack is found, (Abbas, 2008) & (Marsden, 2008).
40
Another reason is mentioned as poverty, which restricts the parents to send their children to the
private schools for getting the high quality education. Government schools are the only option for
the poor parents. And the untrained teachers of the government schools are not trained
professionally, (Wilner, & Dubouloz, 2010) & (Ashour, 2009). The precious time of the students
get wasted due to the lectures. The fund allocation for the educational sector of Pakistan, by the
government is also very low, (Pargeter, 2009). Only 2% of the GDP is allocated to education and
the need is to enhance this rate and improve the quality provided. For any country the educational
development is very important. It is only cure for the disable economy and for the building of the
tomorrow’s nation. The above mentioned problems can only be treated with the governmental
support, (Johnson, & Mason, 2008).
4.6 Education employing for eradicating extremism:
The 20th century is being marked as the century of humanity in the history, as almost 150 million
people has been killed by the hands of other people. Same century has remained remarkable in
knowing as the most promising century for the technological and intellectual invention. There has
been great challenges inherited to the 21st century and it is hoped that the development of the
previous century will be used for the promotion of prosperity and peace in the 21st century. This
will have impact over the improvement in the quality of life of the people and thereby will allow
the survival of the humanity, (Pargeter, 2009).
21st century is being loaded with the numbers of large challenges for global community. The
challenges have inclusion of the exponential growth of the innovation and information,
globalization of the business environment, availability of the information in terms of the volume,
mode, speed, time and nature, access of the data, controlling of the intern organizational and
international business processes in the real time, new level of the national and the international
competition referred as hyper competition, highly uncertain and the chaotic environment of the
business, energy, quality, increasing stress of acquiring skills, productivity, government
regulations and the other stressors, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010).
Moreover, the extremism has been emerged in the society as the common trait in global world and
it has posed threat over the prosperity, peace and harmony of the entire globe, (Johnson, & Mason,
2008).
41
Many people have considered education to be the only solution to the highlighted problem. They
are right as the education is the commonly meaning of bringing change in the behavior of the
people, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). To educate the people is meaning to
change the behavior of the people. Now the question is what to change and to what extent change
must be brought in the society. The educational philosophies have shown the review and have
highlighted the impact of education over the progressivism, perrennialism, essentialism, re-
constructionism, modernism, eclecticism, and the post-modernism. And in the course of history
the socio, political and economic condition has also shown benefits attainment from the education,
(Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). The relationship mentioned by the educationalist among the
power and knowledge and shown argument that the society classifies, distributes, selects and
evaluates the educational knowledge for the public which is reflected in the distribution of the
power and the social control. So it is narrated that the education is the only activity which has
shown importance for the political and social dimensions, (Pargeter, 2009) & (Azzam, 2006). The
knowledge is required to be properly organized in the curriculum of the schools so that it can be
reflected in the social activities of the people and have the particular pattern seen in the failure and
success of the economy. Now the question is that who is really responsible for defining the
education to the nation, (Hamm, 2008).
In the current time, the knowledge about the social, civic and the personal responsibilities is the
key sources for the combating of terrorism and extremism, (Lall, 2008) & (Hafez, 2003). It is also
showing the major framework for the 21st century skills acquisition. The sections that have been
added in the 21st century skill framework has shown inclusion of:
Life skills: The good teachers allow the students to incorporate the life sills in to pedagogy. The
major challenge is to implement these important skills in to the schools strategically, broadly and
deliberately, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010).
The life skills include the following:
- Accountability
- Leadership
- Personal productivity
- Ethics
42
- Self-direction
- Personal responsibility
- Adaptability
- People skills
- Social responsibility
The skills framework has inclusion of:
- Teaming, interpersonal skills and collaboration,
- Effective communication
- Interactive communication
- Social, civic and the personal responsibilities
The American association of the colleges and universities has shown inclusion of skills in 21st
century framework as:
- Social and personal responsibilities
- Intercultural competence and knowledge
- Civic engagement and knowledge about globe and locality
- Foundation and the skills for the lifelong learning
- Ethical actions and reasoning
In order to combat the extremism spread through madrassas, and religious schools, the government
of Pakistan has decided to take them under the national education system. This will be done under
the National internal security policy. In a report issued by AFP, it is said that there are
approximately 22,000 madrassas in the country that has become responsible for the spreading of
extremism. In the parliament a united policy is being presented by Chaudhry Nisar that almost $78
billion cost have been incurred over the lives lost in a decade. However, it is equally documented
by (Lall, 2008) & (Hafez, 2003) that all of the madrassas are not upfront from the problem and
thereby it is not right to view them all as negative. There is problem creation from some of the
madrassas and they are the reason for spreading of the extremism. These madrassas are gaining
Master thesis religion society and global issues
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Master thesis religion society and global issues

  • 1. Radicalization in Pakistan The Radicalizationof Pakistan and the spread of Radical Islam in Pakistan Candidate BASHIR AHMAD Supervisor JANIKE HEDAL STRAY MF Norwegian School of Theology, 2015 Spring Semester:2015 Course code: AVH5035: Master's Thesis (60 ECTS) Study program : Master in Religion, Society and Global Issues
  • 2. 1 Contents Chapter1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……. 4 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4 1.1 Research question:............................................................................................................ 7 1.2 Theoretical foundation ..................................................................................................... 7 1.2.1 Introduction:.............................................................................................................. 7 1.2.2 Huntington theory of civilization.............................................................................. 7 1.2.3 Lieven theory of religion and nationalism:............................................................... 9 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................... 12 2.Introduction: .......................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 13 2.2 Comparison of Samuel Huntington’s clash of civilization theory and Anatole Lieven religion and nationalism theory:………………………………………………………………13 2.3 Research approaches and design:................................................................................... 13 2.4 Sampling procedures:..................................................................................................... 14 2.5 Data collection technique:.............................................................................................. 16 2.6 Data analysis: ................................................................................................................. 16 2.7 Reliability and validity:.................................................................................................. 17 2.8 Weakness of the research method:................................................................................. 17 2.9 Data collection technique:.............................................................................................. 18 2.10 Conclusion and summary:.............................................................................................. 18
  • 3. 2 Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................ 21 3. Introduction:....................................................................................................................... 21 3.1 Historical background .................................................................................................... 21 Chapter 4.................................................................................................................................. 27 4. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 27 4.1 The Radicalization Process ............................................................................................ 27 4.2 Radicalization in Pakistan:............................................................................................. 31 4.3 Exclusive Islamic Identity and Youth Radicalization.................................................... 32 4.4 Madrassa education: a threat to peace and tolerance ..................................................... 35 4.5 Education in modern regular schools:............................................................................ 38 4.6 Education employing for eradicating extremism: .......................................................... 40 4.7 Limitations : the current educational curriculum which hinders in the way to combat the terrorism and extremism...................................................................................................... 43 4.8 Links of the pakistani education system with the extremism: ....................................... 44 4.9 Teaching to the citizens: s the education and why:........................................................ 45 4.10 Conclusion and summary:.............................................................................................. 56 Chapter 5....................................................................................................................................... 47 5. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 48 5.1 Critical analysis:............................................................................................................. 48 5.2 Roots of extremism in Pakistan:..................................................................................... 48 5.3 Outcomes derived from madrassa in form of hate:........................................................ 49 5.4 Wthe formducation: ystem of madrassa is under criticism? .......................................... 54 5. withfluence of environment and Pedagogy:.......................................................................... 56 5.6 Militants and moderates:................................................................................................ 58 5.7 Change and continuity : religious education:................................................................ 59
  • 4. 3 5.8 Diversity o: institutions:................................................................................................. 59 5.9 Transnational networks:................................................................................................. 61 5.10 Challenges to reform:..................................................................................................... 61 5.10.1 Independence of madrassas…………………………………………………………….76 5.11 What is a madrassa? ....................................................................................................... 65 5.12 Overview of madrassas: ................................................................................................. 67 Figures, Facts, and opinion based on the reports of The Express Tribune:............................ 69 5.13 Madrassa text.................................................................................................................. 70 5.14 Languages Taught to students in Madrassas:................................................................. 72 Chapter 6....................................................................................................................................... 75 6. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 75 6.1 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 75 6.2 Findings not recommendation........................................................................................ 84 6.3 Future findings: .............................................................................................................. 85 Chapter 7....................................................................................................................................... 87 7. References.............................................................................................................................. 87
  • 5. 4 Chapter 1 Radicalization in Pakistan and the spread of radical Islam in Pakistan 1. Introduction In this chapter I want to discuss the main reason of religious radicalization in Pakistan. Islamic radicalism and extremism, political, social, cultural and traditional beliefs and anti-west sentiments are the important factors that radicalize people in Pakistan. It is pertinent to mention that radicalism is not intrinsic to Islam and radical interpretations of the religion or for that matter may occur within any way of life and religion (Saikal, 2003), and yet, the question remains as to why Muslims in certain geographical regions have more radical approaches towards their religion and also that what are the causes of such radicalization. Becoming a radical Muslim is not even a matter of a day nor is it a sudden process. There are several reasons behind making a person radical, peaceful, angry, smiling or tolerant. For knowing the reason behind radicalization or radicals persons, one has to understand the causes. Tracing these causes is one of the ways to eliminate such behavior. The first step in the elimination of the radical sentiments in a person is to develop peace in his personality, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). The chapter, which has been addressed here, is going to shed light on the roots and symptoms of the radicalism. There will be a brief discussion on how the roots of radicalism can be traced and can be eliminated. The assessment and discussion will be conducted on the parameters of the economy, media, politics, and theology from social cultural point of view. According to the analysis of Ahrari, (2000), political factor is one of the major and direct factors which have resulted in causing of the radicalism. These factors however intertwine with one another. Radical actions cannot take place only because of the political factors. There are other factors also that should be given equal importance, in accordance with the work of Nasr (2002). Sectarian killings are another reason of radicalization in Muslims. These killings became rampant and welcomed jihadists to come to Pakistan from Afghanistan and play their part against non- Muslims and Muslims, as well, (Roy, 2002). The syllabus of the subjects such as Islamic studies and Pakistan studies is also viewed as instilling the hate ideology among school children, and college students (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010; Saikal, 2003). Even the militants and Mullahs
  • 6. 5 have also worked for these radicalized people and they have tamed them to fight for their motives and feed their ambitions. In traditional societies, religion and culture play an important role. The Traditional and moderate Islamic beliefs and practices with strong indigenous and Sufi content in South Asia are diametrically opposed to the radical Wahhabi and Taliban ideologies and practices which are intolerant of other cultures and groups, (Yusuf, 2008). The emergence of radicalization and the spread of radical Islam in Pakistan is the main source of instability and conflict in this region, (Kirby, 2007). Another doctrine of Zahab, (2002), has explained that extremism or radicalization has tendencies in the country and they are the product of imperial, local, national and interlocking capitalist factors. Global and the transitional factors are playing a part in the creation of the religious violence. Even the rulers of Pakistan and government is also involved in making alliances with the retrogressive forces for the achievement of their political goals and seek power from Americans and Saudi Arabia. Moreover, due to the disharmony, dishonesty, challenges, failing economy, fragmentation, political turmoil, directionless education system, dysfunctional government and real concerns are the source of creating radicalism in Islam and Pakistan, (Cohen, 2003). Radical Islam began showing its influence in Pakistan during 1979 When Afghan Jihad started against Soviet forces in Afghanistan and has since become an important factor in the conflict, resulting in several unconventional attacks on Pakistani Army targets and the fragmentation of the separatist movement of Baluchistan, (Ahrari, 2000). The terrorist tactics and radical beliefs of a number of Pakistani Taliban are unprecedented in Pakistan, but contrary to popular belief, radical Islam is embraced only by a minority of the population, (Chellaney, 2006). Additionally, Pakistani practice a form of Sunni Islam with Sufi influences, and Sufis and Wahhabis have never had harmonious relations, (Roy, 2002). Societal transformation is a continuous process and it does not depend on the single factor. The phenomena of the transformation are being linked with the internal and external factors. Internal factors include the religious disharmony, failing economy, education system, and dysfunctional government. External factors include clashes of the civilization and the generation of the war and anti-west sentiments (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). So in this assessment of the analytical
  • 7. 6 work the analysis of the factors causing the radicalization in the Muslims has been intended to analyze. Moreover, the assessment is planned to base over exploration of factors which has resulted in expanding the perceptions of the people about radicalization, (Nasr, S. V. 2002). It is also intended to explore that what have forced people to change their perceptions and behavioral adaptation due to the Afghan and US war, especially after 1979. In addition, the need is to explore that how Islamic settings and the education system in Pakistan is generating the negative feelings of hate for the other people. In addition, this work has also set its focus over explaining the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan government. The aim of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive explanation of the causes of the spread of radical Islam in Pakistan. Other research on the subject fails to provide an in-depth explanation for this recent phenomenon and presents only a partial picture of the causes. This thesis will, through the application of two theories, investigate different claims and is expected to arrive at certain conclusions concerning the causes behind the spread of radical Islam in Pakistan. Hence, the objectives are of the current study are: - The exploration of factors that have resulted in radicalization. Radicalization has been created by the formation of strong beliefs to save Islam and its boundaries from non- believers and fight for the rights of the nation has given birth to the militants. - To explore that what have forced people to change their perception and behavioral adaptation due to the Afghan and US war, especially after 1979. Afghanistan is the hub of Talibanisation and is the main area controlled by Mullah Umar and Osama Bin Laden and their successor. US have started the war against them with the help of Pakistan due to which both countries have to face some pros and cons. - The exploration of how Islamic settings and education system in Pakistan is generating the feelings of hate for other people and analyze the cultural, social and economic factors. - To set its focus over explaining the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan government. Pakistan has to face economically bad conditions due to numerous factors, since the day first. They have remained in issues created by India and later on they have lost their main area of West Pakistan (Bangladesh).
  • 8. 7 Political instability has created the issues of unemployment, health, education and security unaddressed. Some of the natural disasters like flood, earth quakes and tsunami have also distracted the country and in such condition aid is the only option to run the country. Pakistan has faced burden of IMF loan and they are forced to get involved in the war against terrorism, which has restricted their economic and social growth. 1.1 Research question What are the factors behind the emergence of radical Islam in Pakistan? 1.2 Theoretical foundation 1.3 In addition to the literature review I have applied two major theories for discussing the causes of radicalization of Islam. Huntington theory explains that Islam is the only religion of violence and Islam is originated from tribal conflict and even the birth of Islamic religion is violent. In the Holy Quran and other Islamic books use the authoritative language that convinces Muslims to use violence against non-Muslims. On the contrary, Lieven’s theory of religion and nationalism explain that the differences between different ethnic groups lead to violent conflict. In Pakistan many different ethnic groups are living together and the main cause of violent conflict and radicalism are ethnic differences. 1.3.1 Introduction The two theories that have been reviewed in this chapter are of Huntington and the Lieven. These two theories have been studied as they have laid ground for the understanding development of conflicts among nation and reason for causing the radicalization process heat up in Islam. Ideology explained here very fruitful for the development of understanding about the Islam, Muslim and their acts in radicalization process. 1.3.2 Huntington theory of civilization The theory presented by Huntington about the Clash of the Civilization has been published in Foreign Affairs journal and it has got more attention from the world. It is being suggested by the theory that the world has got influenced by the clashes between the civilizations. However, the theory has not got appreciation and it has to undergo criticism for the ignoring of indigenous
  • 9. 8 conflicts, wrong prediction about past and over simplification. It has been evidently proven that the claims made by Huntington are not supported by the world after the incidents of the 9/11. The world went into a new cold war and has influenced by the International relationships, (Kean, & Hamilton, 2004). Huntington theory has shown its entire basis over the future of the “great division between the human kinds and dominance in the source of conflict due to the culture”. The division of the culture is being done in to seven current civilizations as Hindu, Western, Islamic, Japanese, African, Latin American and Sinic civilization. Huntington has discussed the ideology for the confrontation among the liberal democracy and the communism as the future of the conflicts among the micro level of the civilization. He has predicted that at the macro level, the conflict has occurred due to having difference in the civilization and for unable to control the institutions for the military powers and the economic powers. This is attributed due to the vast history of conflicts among the different civilization. This is also attributed to the geo political factors rather the only persuading the cultural differences (Altman, Burton, Cuthill, Festing, Hutton, & Playle, 2006). The power of multi civilizations becomes stronger over the clash of the Soviet Union. It is not the fact that civilizations were not present before this cold war, but it is truth that they become more communicative and powerful after this cold war. Politics in the world is being now shaped by different civilizations, which according to the Huntington is based over the highest cultural grouping and results in identifying the cultural identity. The intellectual characteristics of the society has been addressed by these common believes and values, and one of them is the religion formation. Race and the political entities are the two dimensions over which civilization are distinguished and differentiated from others. The identity of civilization has become stronger identity and is becoming reason to derive the conflicts behind the world and is replacing super power rivalry, (Kean, & Hamilton, 2004). Huntington has addressed the issue of clashes in the civilization by accepting the fact that the world is based over different multi-player and multi civilization. The power of multi civilizations becomes stronger over the clash of the Soviet Union. It is not the fact that civilizations were not present before this cold war, but it is true that they become more communicative and powerful
  • 10. 9 after this cold war. Huntington has claimed that Muslims are the Bloody Boarder and they have destroyed the world peace. They cannot live with non-Muslims and thereby they have adopted the ideology of converting the non-Muslims into Muslims. Although, they have done this, still they do not accept the minorities of non-Muslims in their countries. They are brutal and cruel and they cannot have tended to accept their presence. Huntington has shown that Muslim civilization has done this because they have a fear of losing their identity in the world as a civilization and to ensure that they do not lose it, they have adopted the way of hate spreading. They are killing one another, so to keep their identity alive as the brutal nation, (Altman, Burton, Cuthill, Festing, Hutton, & Playle, 2006). 1.3.3 Lieven theory of religion and nationalism Lieven has admitted that nationalism and religiosity are created due to the span of the centuries and develop the religious identity and ethnic cultural identity. The threat caused due to the ethos provides strength to the religious convictions and the embracement of the fanatical forms which gives power to the cultural resistance and militants. However, his believing is opposite to that of Huntington. Huntington believes that it is the nation who generates the conflicts and act in a conflicting manner towards accepting the civilization of others. Whereas, Lieven believes that conflict is the root cause of creating ideology for the nation. When there is conflict occurred in the society, civilization act as religious and national fanatics. Firstly, they are not a threat to others, but later on they become a huge threat for others. So, it is found that the ideology of the Lieven about the religiosity and nationalism is quite changed to that of the Huntington. He has presented a completely different view, (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). Lieven has talked too much about the idealism of the American nations by addressing the American Creed, constitutionalism, democracy, liberty, law, separation of churches and individualism. He has addressed the attitudes and influencing factors for both of the domestic and the foreign affairs. He has written in his book about the reasonable situation of the American nations and their part in struggling against the terrorism, al Qaeda and other allies. They are backed with the support of their entire nation and power from the entire world for the safety of the humanity.
  • 11. 10 Lieven has thereby first painted the picture in explaining the nation and its features as constitutionalism, democracy, liberty, law, separation of churches, equality, social, desire to spread their religion and individualism., (Diagonal, 2004). It is found that Americans cannot spread their religion and nationalism as they have restricted rules and they might become able to confront the world about their actual values and that is the reason they have unrealistically hold such acts. The Lieven has thus added the decapitation and democratic theory which is going to be supported with Saddam. This is the camping of American nation for making the other societies and communities democratic. This means they have promoted the meanness of the spirit and sloppiness of the intellectual. This work is valuable for the entire nation of USA and for the whole world, (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). Many nations have resulted to have adherence of the religion processes for the homogenizing modernization among the miserable, cruelest and bear the association with the cultural and imperial power to threat the destruction and assimilation of the culture. As a result strong religious feelings are resulted to arouse in the nation and it resulted in the evolution of the war against terrorism and pray under the fire. The reasons which have created the radicalization in Pakistan are based over the construct of Lieven’s theory. The creation of radicalization in Pakistan is based over two major points: conservatism in the classes and societies and the extent to which culture and nation appears to be threatening due to destruction and assimilation outside the cultural influences, as explained by Lieven, (Diagonal, 2004). Comparison of Samuel Huntington’s clash of civilization theory and Anatole Lieven religion and nationalism theory: Huntington belief was that the civilizations are the reason for the conflict and since religion is the core aspect of civilization, thereby religion has become the reason for the creation of conflict. The claim of Lieven’s is quite opposite to that of Huntington. He has claimed the opposite and said that conflict is the main source behind religiosity. He explained that conflicts are not fueled by the religion fanatics rather it is vice versa. It means that conflict occurs and then after this strong believers in the religions are created. Huntington theory of civilization Lieventheory of religiosity and nationalism
  • 12. 11 Multiplier and multicultural nature of the civilization is addressed as a core aspect of the theory The clashes of the civilization and the generation of the war and anti-west sentiments are the reasons for the adopted policies and socioeconomic conditions Race and Politics are used to shape different civilizations and nations Conflict is used to shape different religion and nations Common values and beliefs are used to address the ideology in the religion formation The noticeable religious influence is resulted due to the secular nationalism Super power is being replaced by the civilizations who have strong replacing power The threat caused due to the ethos provides strength to the religious convictions and the embracement of the fanatical forms which gives power to the cultural resistance and militants Ethnic conflicts and tribal conflicts are the two areas over which to civilization conflict with each other Conflicts are not fueled by the religion fanatics Religion has become the reason for the creation of conflict Conflict is the main source behind religiosity. The comparison of both theories explain that radicalization in Pakistani society is mainly focuses violence in Islam and traditional and cultural conflict. The chapter mentioned a comprehensive explanations and causes of religious radicalism in Pakistan. During my research work I have found several factors that are working behind the spread of radicalization in Pakistan. Huntington arguments that Islam lacks its position seems to be true in Pakistani society. Lieven theory of nationalism also seems true that ethnic, social and cultural conflicts are causing radicalism. Both Huntington’s and Lieven’s theory are very helpful in answering the research question. Both theories are presenting a comprehensive picture of the spread of radicalization in Pakistan.
  • 13. 12 Chapter 2 2. Introduction Methodological section of the research tells about the ways through which researcher has finally made the way to reaching solutions. The way highlighted is based over the reviews made about the previous researchers and sees what outcomes they have managed to obtain. I use the method
  • 14. 13 to approach the research problem theoretically. The two theories clash of civilization is focusing on his arguments about Islam. His arguments that Islam is the bloody borders giving a complete assumption by answering the research question. Huntington’s arguments also contrasted with the relation between religion and nationalism that is presented in Lieven’s theory. 2.1 Methodology The chapter, which is prepared for the methodology is the basic road map which is required to be followed in developing the understanding of the studied problem and the way to get the solution through the adopted road map. In this chapter of the research methodology, the aim of the researchers is to establish the way for themselves in knowing what to do and how to do. The answers to the problem will be surely attained by following these road maps and the solution attained will be used for the description of the data analysis chapter, which will be prepared after the conduction of data testing and data collection. The data collection methods will be thoroughly explained and discussed. Let’s develop understanding on the dimensions of this chapter. The adopted method of analysis for the studying of the radicalization in Islam is being done with the qualitative method. The qualitative method will be presenting the deep analysis on the topic analyzed and it will be shedding light on how the radicalization has taken root in Pakistan and what will be the solution to the problem. This approach is selected to solve the research problem with the theoretical work. The two theories adopted are Samuel Huntington’s clash of civilizations theory, focusing primarily on his arguments about Islam, and Anatol Lieven’s religion and nationalism theory. The investigation will be done through the research question by examining Huntington’s argument that Islam has bloody borders, with the assumption that his argument is insufficient in answering the research question. His argument will then be contrasted with the alternative explanation on the relationship between religion and nationalism presented by Lieven (De Marchi, & Blaug, 1991). 2.2 Research approaches and design Design for the research has shown groups of explorers, predictor and explanatory. The design selection is done over the basis of adopted methodology. The adopted method of analysis is qualitative and thereby the design chosen for the further analysis is explanatory. The explanatory
  • 15. 14 manner of research design is being elected for the reason of finding a solution to the problem by explaining each and every step faced in generation and creation of radicalization and its consequences on the country of Pakistan. With the help of the same design, the explanation will be given on the methods adopted for solving the issues related to the radicalization and the possible solution for the ending of radicalization in Pakistan. The mode of research design adopted is based over the explanatory mode, (Reinharz, & David Mann, 1992). This is due to adopt methodological approach of qualitative nature. The explanatory approach says that the explanation of the ideology discussed is being explained in the deepest manner and by exploring the different theories, (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949; De Wilde, Bour, Dingemans, Koelman, & Linszen, 2007). The assessment of the radicalization is being explained with the concept discussed by the theorist of Lieven and Samuel. The mode of explanation is being adopted as deductive. Deductive method says that the exploration of the research data is being done with the widest and general manner and the extraction of the specific findings has been done. The approaches have shown groups of inductive and the deductive. The inductive approach is a dimension of the research in which the research finds solution to the problem by following the pattern of general facts from the specific observations. This approach is adopted to make certain that the researcher will end up in the presentation of the newly evolved theory. The generation of a new theory is being done with inductive approach. The deductive approach is a dimension of the research in which the research finds solution to the problem by following the pattern of specific facts from the general observations. This approach dimension is adopted to make certain that the researcher will present the outcomes of the research with the adaptation of the available theories. The generation of no new theory is being done with deductive approach, (De Marchi, & Blaug, 1991). The approach adopted with this research project is deductive and this is chosen so to present the specific facts of radicalization about Pakistan. Moreover, old theories will be applied so to derivatives the outcomes. 2.3 Sampling procedures The grouping of the sampling, which is extracted from the population is done over the probability and non-probabilities basis. The probability basis selection when made than the research is known as probability sampling and when the non-probabilistic basis selection when made than the
  • 16. 15 research is known as non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is the technique of assessment when the probabilities and frequency of occurrence is being allocated to the samples which are required to be selected. The further breaking of the probability groups has been done as cluster sampling, quota sampling, random sampling and stratified sampling. Non-Probability sampling is the technique of assessment when the analytical skills and judgments are being allocated to the samples which are required to be selected, (Salomon, & Clark, 1977). The further breaking of the probability groups has been done as judgmental sampling, convenient sampling, and purposive sampling. The sapling which has been done here is done over the non-probability based purposive sampling. The purpose established for the selection of the samples is based over the updated data available about the problem studied. However, at some places it has also become essential to add the data from the history and thereby purposefully data is being divided and examined. Samples are the part of the population and they have been studied so to have explored the research project. The samples extracted from the research problem will be described in the heading below and they are true representatives of the population, (Salomon, & Clark, 1977) & (Mertens, 1998). The grouping of the sampling, which is extracted from the population is done over the probability and non-probabilities basis. The probability basis selection when made than the research is known as probability sampling and when the non-probability basis selection when made than the research is known as non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is the technique of assessment when the probabilities and frequency of occurrence is being allocated to the samples which are required to be selected. The further breaking of the probability groups has been done as cluster sampling, quota sampling, random sampling and stratified sampling. Non- Probability sampling is the technique of assessment when the analytical skills and judgments are being allocated to the samples which are required to be selected, (Salomon, & Clark, 1977). The further breaking of the probability groups has been done as judgmental sampling, convenient sampling, and purposive sampling. The sapling which has been done here is done over the non- probability based purposive sampling. The purpose established for the selection of the samples is based over the updated data available about the problem studied. However, at some places it has also become essential to add the data from the history and thereby purposefully data is being divided and examined.
  • 17. 16 2.4 Data collection technique The data collection technique has gained establishment of the groups of primary and secondary data. The primary data gathered from the primary research conducted is fresh in nature and it has to undergo the reliability testing. The data are gathered by researchers and is re-designed and used as per the need of the research. Primary research conduction requires money and time and is thereby not advisable when the secondary paradigm can be followed. Primary data collection has been incorporated with the conduction of interviews, surveys, experiments, questionnaire fillings, focus groups, case studies and etc. The secondary data gathered for the secondary research conduction is based over the used data. The data are gathered by researchers and is re-designed and used as per the need of the research. Secondary research conduction does not require much amount of money and time and is thereby being preferable than the primary research. Secondary data collection has been incorporated with the review of the economic data, financial figures, World Bank data, survey reports issued by countries, journals, websites, news reports and channels and etc., (Reinharz, & David Mann, 1992). Data collection, which is done here in this report is based over the secondary data. The secondary data collection will be done from the different websites, journals and reports. The data collection will be to analyze the data with the observational and thematic approach. 2.5 Data analysis The analytical approach to the data collected includes the observational and phenomenological. This approach is based over the explanation of the outcomes by observing what have been done in the past and developing the phenomenological outcomes out of the derived outcomes. The assessment is then used to enable the researchers in getting the answers. With the adopted methodology the aim is to gauge that what are factors causing the radicalization in the Muslims, how Islamic settings and education system in Pakistan is provoking the negative feelings of hate for the other people, what have forced people to change their perception and behavioral adaptation due to the Afghan and US war, what is the perception of the people about radicalization and what is the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan government. The assessment is going to help the people in getting the outcomes. With this research approach the weakness is that the subjective views may add the biasness and it may result in
  • 18. 17 presenting the irrational outcomes, (Reinharz, & David man, 1992). For the logical assessment of the outcomes, quantitative research approach is the best one, which is not being adopted here. 2.6 Reliability and validity The testing for the validity and the reliability becomes essential for the primary data and the primary conducted research. In the secondary data the validity and reliability is already being examined by previous researchers. The reliability is measured with the statistical software with the attainment of the value of Cornbach’s alpha. The value of cornbach’s alpha must be near to one for the provision of the guarantee for the reliable value. The reliability is measured so to guarantee that examination of the data is also reliable and reliable outcomes are gained. The validity measurement is done with the consultancy attained from SMEs or subject matter experts, (Reinharz, & David man, 1992). These experts know about the research and have knowledge to help others in knowing error free and valid generation of the outcomes. They validate the questionnaire for the validity and give guarantee for the gaining of the valid data. The validity is measured so to guarantee that examination of the data is also valid and valid outcomes are gained. 2.7 Weakness of the research method Weakness linked with the research work is the addition of the qualitative paradigm. The qualitative paradigm has made this research based over detailed study. The weaknesses associated with this method is lacking of the analysis of the numeric data and the quantitative figures. The figures must be analyzed with the quantitative tools like SPSS. There is no logical and rationale association of the data with the research project. The lacking of the rationality is the issue with the current research. Moreover, the assessment of the research is also based over the subjective view. The associated way of qualitative is being enriched with the subjective views and they provide deep assessment of the problem. Thereby it is lacking in the presentation of the objective view. The objectivity lacking has made the research limited for having the objective narration of the data. Lastly, the weakness present in the methodology is about the addition of the biased views, (Salomon, & Clark, 1977). This has happened due to the subjective nature of the research. There is no assurance given against not adding the personal and biased views. May be the researchers used in this work is not valid and reliable and thereby biasness has being occurred in one way or other.
  • 19. 18 2.8 Data collection technique The data collection technique has gain establishment from the groups of primary and secondary data. The primary data gathered for the primary research conduction is fresh in nature and it has to undergo the reliability testing. The data is gathered by researcher and is re-designed and used as par the need of the research. Primary research conduction requires money and time and is thereby not advisable when the secondary paradigm can be followed. Primary data collection has been incorporated with the conduction of interviews, surveys, experiments, questionnaire fillings, focus groups, case studies and etc. The secondary data gathered for the secondary research conduction is based over the used data. The data is gathered by researcher and is re-designed and used as par the need of the research. Secondary research conduction do not require much amount of money and time and is thereby is preferable than the primary research. Secondary data collection has been incorporated with the review of the economic data, financial figures, World Bank data, survey reports issued by countries, journals, websites, news reports and channels and etc., (Reinharz, & David man, 1992). Data collection which is done here in this report is based over the secondary data. The secondary data collection will be done from the different websites, journals and reports. The data collection will be to analyze the data with the observational and thematic approach. 2.9 Conclusion and summary Suitable method and the pathway to analyze the research project are being discussed in this chapter of the analysis. There have been three methods of the assessment of the research, which has inclusion of qualitative, quantitative and mixed approach. The three of the approaches differ from each other and they all have different analytical techniques. The analysis through quantitative mode is done with the numeric data, which is quantifiable and can be monitored in the statistical manner. This has enabled the researchers to reach towards the objective outcomes. The analysis through qualitative mode is done with the deep reviews taken from the people associated with the problem. This has enabled the researchers to reach towards the subjective outcomes. The analysis
  • 20. 19 through mixed mode is done with the numeric data and with the deep reviews taken from the people linked with the problem. This has enabled the researchers to reach towards the objective and subjective, both outcomes. The adopted approach for the assessment is the qualitative approach. This approach is selected to solve the research problem with the theoretical work. The two theories adopted are Samuel Huntington’s clash of civilizations theory, focusing primarily on his arguments about Islam, and Anatol Lieven’s religion and nationalism theory. The investigation will be done through the research question by examining Huntington’s argument that Islam has bloody borders, with the assumption that his argument is insufficient in answering the research question. His argument will then be contrasted with the alternative explanation on the relationship between religion and nationalism presented by Lieven. The mode of research design adopted is based over the explanatory mode. This is due to adopted methodological approach of qualitative nature. The explanatory approach says that the explanation of the ideology discussed is being explained in the deepest manner and by exploring the different theories. The assessment of the radicalization is being explained with the concept discussed by the theorist of Lieven and Samuel. The mode of explanation is being adopted as deductive. Deductive says that the exploration of the research data is being done with the widest and general manner and the extraction of the specific findings has been done. The collection of data is being categorized as the primary and the secondary modes. The primary mode is the way to collect the fresh data and use it for the exploration of the specific outcomes. Primary mode for the data collection include the experimentation, surveys, interviews, focus group etc. the secondary mode is the way to collect the second handed which is used by others. Secondary mode for the data collection includes the financial data of companies, the economic surveys, journals, research papers and others. Here the collection of the data is being with the secondary mode. This is done by exploring the different theories shared by Lieven and Samuel and added by others. The analytical approach for the data collected includes the observational and phenomenological. This approach is based over the explanation of the outcomes by observing what have been done in the past and developing the phenomenological outcomes out of the derived outcomes. The assessment is then used to enable the researchers in getting the answers. With the adopted
  • 21. 20 methodology the aim is to give that what are factors causing the radicalization in the Muslims, how Islamic settings and education system in Pakistan is provoking the negative feelings of hate for the other people, what have forced people to change their perception and behavioral adaptation due to the Afghan and US war, what is the perception of the people about radicalization and what is the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan government. The assessment is going to help the people in getting the outcomes. With this research approach the weakness is that the subjective views may add the biasness and it may result in presenting the irrational outcomes. For the logical assessment of the outcomes, quantitative research approach is the best one, which is not being adopted here.
  • 22. 21 Chapter 3 3. Introduction The assessment of the history of the radicalization is required to be tested and evaluated with the different theories, theoretical framework, empirical evidences and conceptual ideology. This chapter has briefly shed light over each of the factors. 3.1 Historical background a. Radicalization –causes and enabling factors When Pakistan got independence in 1947, many of the religious groups in subcontinent were agai nst the idea of division of subcontinent because they disliked the orientation of the leaders of Mu slim League (which supported the idea for partition of subcontinent) and also thought that they ha d more capabilities to proselytize in India than Muslim League. However Pakistan was created to protect the interests and rights of Muslims living in the Indian subcontinent, the political party de spite being secular used the name of Islam during their freedom movement in order to galvanize a nd mobilize the people. The founder of Pakistan Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1876- 1948) and many o ther leaders were highly liberal and educated people who committed themselves for creating a de mocratic Muslim state called Pakistan and not a theological state. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1 898), the leader who provided a platform to Muslims living in Indian subcontinent by establishin g Aligarh University and Allama Iqbal (1877-1938), the philosopher and poet who presented the i dea of establishing Pakistan, were both enlightened and progressive leaders. The message and phi losophy of Allama Iqbal is apparent through one of his popular verses which means “the belief of the mullah is to spread anarchy in the name of Allah”. Mohammad Ali Jinnah in his 1st address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan declared in clea r terms that people may belong to any caste, religion or creed, the State has nothing to do with thi s. It is interesting to note that numerous political leaders who were around Jinnah belonged to the minor sects of Muslims. Mohammad Ali Jinnah himself belonged to Ithna Ashari Shia sect of Mu slim. Other important personalities of British India that belonged to minor sects of Muslims inclu
  • 23. 22 de Raja Ghazanfar Ali Khan, Raja Mohammad Ameer Khan, MAH Ispahani, Lady Nusrat Haroo n, Seth Mohammad Ali Habib (creator of Habib Bank) and Prince Karim Aga khan (the leader of Shia Ismaili sect) .Sir Zafarullah Khan, the 1st foreign minister of Pakistan and a stalwart of freed om movement was a follower of Ahmadi sect (which was declared to be outside of Islam in the y ear 1973 by the legislature of Pakistan). At that time, the religious identity of these personalities d id not matter. Instead of following the guidelines given by the leaders who participated in freedom movement, t he Pakistan’s 1st constituent assembly argued and debated over the identity of the country and fin ally resorted to Islam in order to establish national unity. Pakistan which was initially established as a federation aimed to mend 6 ethnic groups together, however when this objective was announ ced publicly, only the religious parties who claimed to be most potent and qualified demanded to make this state an Islamic state. Since then, the religious and clergy political parties claimed their right of defining the identity of Pakistan and started recommending constitutional provisions in o rder to establish the Pakistan’s new constitution which is ‘Islamic’ in form as well as spirit. In the initial three decades from 1947 to 1977, they has minimal success, however the political strength of religious parties increased and they expanded their organization during these years. The initial signs of radicalization were obvious in the 1st decade of establishment of Pakistan in th e year 1953 in the form of anti-Ahmadi group in Punjab. This will be discussed later in more deta il. In the year 1977, the emergence of General Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq in the political scenario w as helpful in redefining Pakistan. General Zia-ul-Haq declared clearly that Pakistan will collapse i f you make it a secular state by taking out Islam from Pakistan. The religious parties were glad to hear this and saw a ‘messiah’ in Zia-ul-Haq who can bring transformation in Pakistan from above and help in their efforts to make Pakistan an Islamic state which failed initially. Unlike Sufism, a n enlightening, egalitarian and soft message that initially introduced Islam to the people of subco ntinent, the clerical Islam as taught by the religious parties in Pakistan was dogmatic, intrusive an d conservative in spirit. This view resulted in the radicalization of religious identity. It remains a highly contested question that Pakistan should adopt what sort of polity Islamic or lib eral democratic. This quest of shaping the state of Pakistan resulted in addition of another dimens ion to the political and religious polarization. The problem of rights of minority and civil liberties
  • 24. 23 faced a great setback in this entire process of choosing the identity. The crisis of identity faced by the state as well as the society has generated an empty space for religious activism as well as resu ltant radicalization. President Pervez Musharraf during his rule from 1999 to 2008 tried to suppor t those factors that believed in progressive and liberal Pakistan, but his conflicting agendas and le gitimacy were questioned again and again. Numerous dictatorial regimes that were liberal in orie ntation resulted in more political radicalization by shutting doors that lead to democracy. B. Religious Radicalization: The State Sponsorship Gone wrong As described above in political radicalization, the religious parties joined the public domain slow ly and gradually. During these years, the state used the antagonism between Muslims and Hindus to establish a distinctive identity of the newly formed state. In this rivalry within the state, religio n behaved as a context. This it did not result in radicalization but it caused marginalization of sec tarian as well as religious minorities who resided in Pakistan. To prove this point, relevant refere nces from historical events are given. In Afghanistan, the Mujahedeen were never decommissioned. These Mujahedeen created chaos i n Pakistan after their successful jihad in Afghanistan. Radicalization of society resulted from thes e foreign entanglements which had bad consequences for Pakistan. The ideals and idea that were carefully propagated and framed for inspiring the militants and Mujahedeen to fight in Afghanist an and Kashmir have come to Pakistan in the recent years because of the spread of 'jihadi' materi als and literature which did not remain limited to certain geographic zone or people. Since the creation of Pakistan, the country considered itself as a state which has severe threats fro m the neighboring country India. India had grudgingly admitted the existence of Pakistan and its prospects of survival. The foreign and domestic policies of Pakistan were driven by the fear of In dia. In the current situation, the India's growing relationship with Afghanistan and its investments in a country destroyed by war are looked upon by great suspicion by the security forces in Pakista n. It is thought that India is planning to encircle Pakistan. A recent poll conducted in 2012 in the p roject named Global Attitudes Project by Pew Research Centre showed that a number of Pakistan
  • 25. 24 i's believed that India is a greater threat than Taliban despite of the clear evidence of Taliban and the associated group terrorist activities all over Pakistan taking place in the recent years. The massive military spending by Pakistan is because of this way of thinking. Instead of establish ing schools, hospitals, buildings and dams for making electricity, the government of Pakistan inv ested a great amount of money in buying submarines, heavy guns and fighter aircraft. The militar y has expanded its role and work far beyond the requirements of national security. The military in fact has a controlling interest in political economy of Pakistan which only demands hold on powe r. The scarcity of resources for proper development has created dissatisfaction among people and numerous people have adopted radicalization because of the inability of state to fulfil their needs. The involvement of Pakistan in the Jihad by Afghanistan in 1980s resulted in similar problems. I n order to sponsor and support young militants to fight against Soviet army in Afghanistan, a net work of madrassa was rapidly established in Pakistan. This was financed largely by the Gulf and Arab countries so that they can create new militants for this battlefield. The prime recruits in thes e madrassa were the children’s of Pashtuns and Afghan refugees of tribal belt and KPP in Pakista n. According to Kamal Matinuddin, a retired general in Pakistan, General Zia ul Haq created a chai n of madrassas along the border of Pakistan and Afghanistan in order to establish a belt of studen ts who were religiously oriented so that they can assist the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan to kick ou t Soviet from Afghanistan. The Afghan struggle was supported by Arabs because of geopolitics. They were afraid of the expanding influence of Soviet as well as the empowerment and uprising o f Shia in 1979 in Iran, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanya m, 2013). Clear evidences are available that the Disband and Ahle Hadith who constituted about thirty perc ent of Pakistani Sunni population greatly benefited from these establishments. When Pakistan ca me into being in 1947, there were only136 madrassas but it has increased to 30,000 in the recent years. According to an estimate, in the year 1947, there were 245 madrassas in West Pakistan. Th e number of madrassas increased to 2861 in the year 1988. During the time period of 1988 to 200 0, there was a further increase in madrassas of 136%. Deobandis owned the largest number of ma drassas that is about 64% whereas Bareli owns about 25% madrassas. Ahle Hadith owns 6% of m
  • 26. 25 adrassas. There is a phenomenal increase in total number of madrassas of Ahle Hadith. In the yea r 1988 they owned 134 madrassas which rose to 310 in the year 2000, a rise of about 131%. This rise in number of Ahle Hadith madrassas was due to the support of Gulf and Saudi Arab. Furthermore, numerous religious warriors were brought from all across the Muslim countries. Th is effort was done intelligently. After all Afghanistan did not had Mecca for which the Muslims w ould oblige to defend. Numerous secular regimes in Arab were happy to get rid of the extremists who participated in militant opposition groups which planned to overthrow the local regimes. Th e invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet was a great opportunity for the Arab groups who were close t o U.S to export these troublemakers for their own good or to redirect their anger from domestic si tuations to foreign situations namely Soviet. The ISI (Inter-Services Intelligence) of Pakistan had to become central player in this regards. In this whole situation, Pakistan became radicalized itself. The capital of KPP, Peshawar became the headquarters for Mujahedeen and one of the commanders was Osama bin Laden who resided in this city. The manager of Service Bureau and Abdullah Azam who was the mentor of Osama i n Mujahedeen group established their network in the city of Peshawar which also included charit y organizations and a publication house. Al-jihad, the magazines by Mujahedeen are still availabl e in some of the bookstores of Peshawar. When the Soviet forces were withdrawn from Afghanis tan, thousands of militants who were trained and experienced were left in Pakistan which is estim ated to be around 40,000 to 60,000 jihadi. It is hard to produce such militants but decommissioni ng them is much harder than creating them. Rather than stopping their activities when the mission was achieved, the militants spread their materials and literature and this was largely controlled by Saudi Arab who joined them in the jihad. This made them more powerful and articulate. Accordi ng to Abu Mus'ab Al Suri, the strategist of Al-Qaeda, all the ongoing debate and discussion durin g the years of Afghan Jihad spread quickly to the other Muslim countries through leaflets, books, visitors, couriers, communiques and audiocassettes. According to a Pakistani intellectual named S uroosh Irfani, the al Suri's publications in Peshawar called the 'Experience and Lesson of Islamic Jihad Revolution' published in 1991 signaled the internalization of these Arabs in Pakistan. The s hift of Arabs in Pakistan played a central role in the radicalization of Pakistan society.
  • 27. 26 After 1988, some of the militant groups who fought in Afghanistan shifted the focus of their grou p to Kashmir with the help of intelligence services in Pakistan. Lashkar-e-taiba which means the Army of pure, was a group of militants who was based in Pakistan and supported insurgency in K ashmir was formed during these years. The purpose of Lashkar e taiba was to attack the Indian fo rces deployed in Kashmir. However Pervez Musharraf banned the activities of this group in Kash mir after the attack of terrorists in U.S.A on 11th September 2001 but some of the militants went underground whereas others joined their sister organization called Jamaat-Ud-Dawa. This is a gro up of militants that runs charities and religious centers.
  • 28. 27 Chapter 4 Literature review 4. Introduction Review of the literatures has become crucial to see that how previous authors have worked in reviewing the work and what they have found with the similar context of the study. It is also based over the ideological creation for the development of the logical framework with the gap identification. 4.1 The Radicalization Process A lot of research has been done, theories have been flout and people have written about the causes and motivations behind becoming a terrorist. After empirical research there is one consistent finding that there is no particular “terrorist profile “and who or why a person becomes a terrorist cannot be predicted, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013). Unlike the early theories it is completely ruled out that people suffering from some sort of mental disorder can only be associated with terrorist activities, as stated by Biloslavo, (2004). Horrible acts of terrorism are not only committed by “crazy” people. The prevalence of mental illness in between the imprisoned terrorists is much lower than the general population according to studies. The profile of a classic psychopath is rarely matched by a terrorist who commits horrible acts of violence. Not necessarily they are lower socioeconomically from their peers nor not even less educated, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013). 1. It has been agreed upon by intelligent agencies, social scientists and law enforcement organizations that a dynamic process known as “radicalization” produces terrorists. One of our country’s most senior terrorist scholars Brian Jenkins, explains radicalization as, adopting a system of radical believes and also try to impose them on others and committing to them without the fear of the rest of the society”, (Shehzad, 2013). 2. The compulsive behavior for use of violence on the rest of the society for the imposition of their believes, giving punishment for their “evil actions” is the final stage in the process of radicalization, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013). The thing which distinguishes a terrorist from other extremists is the commitment to violence.
  • 29. 28 How people see the world and themselves living in it can be caused by a fundamental change which occurs over a long period of time, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013). This process is still poorly understood in exact nature. None of the theories are tested empirically but conceptual models and different theories have been developed by researchers that explain the route of a person in becoming radicalized. From the beginning to the end of this process moat of them see three to five stages, from initial exposure through indoctrination, training, and then violent actions. Though, different terminologies are used to explain and identify these stages, these stages are conceptualized differently by different researchers. However, it is agreed broadly that when the process of radicalization stars not all the stages are crossed by people to become a terrorist. The violence which is typical to militant jihadists in order to become terrorists many people stop short of it, (Waghmar, 2013). Violent jihadism is the base of our focus here, and in particular those numerous characteristics of the procedure of radicalization on which consensus have been made. As the causes of terrorism have not been identified by the researchers, three vulnerabilities have been recognized by them that probably endorse violence, or provide the source of its motivation, as stated by Biloslavo, (2004). These vulnerabilities are: Perceived Injustice or Humiliation: it may be perceived that the remedy of humiliation or in justice is violent attacks, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013). Needfor Identity: in search of someone’s own identity a person can be attracted to any extremist organization to become a terrorist in a variety of ways. A person who is searching for a goal or purpose in life can take any actions to achieve that goal. In the process of succeeding at something which can make a difference violent act can be seen as the method. Those who feel the stress and complexity is overwhelming to navigate in this complicated world are often attracted to the absolutist “black and white” idea. A person might choose to define his or her identity by associating itself with a terrorist group or organization simply to discern any personal meaning without any struggle, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013). Need for Belonging: A sense of belonging, affiliation ant connectedness can be felt by many prospective terrorists in fundamental extremist group. One researcher describes, that the initial
  • 30. 29 attraction can be the association to a group of common believes rather than committing any horrible act of violence or abstract ideology, (Roy, 2002). 3. For its own sake terrorism is not random act of violence. An ideology provides the rules for one’s behavior which ends in violence. A set of common and broadly believed rules is known as an ideology which helps in regulation or determination of a person’s behavior, (Jones, & O'Donnell, 2012). 4. Long term positive rewards and outcomes which are anticipated are often linked by these rules. The characteristic of violent jihad is suicide attack based on this. Access to paradise is allegedly gained by killing the infidels, (Waghmar, 2013). 5. In its substance the ideology is very different that support militant jihad from other types of terrorism or extremism like eco-terrorism or white supremacy groups. However four features are common in them, (Rashid, 2011). They are: Polarized: their mindset is “us vs. them”. They more think about their own selves rather than the other people. They use other people for their own interest and thereby assures the working of their mindsets for their private use. The explanation of the polarized system is being given by Singer, (2001). It is the education given by the madrassas for dividing the entire society between us and them. They divide the society and the religious lines and thereby break the ideology in which society is being created and the country is being founded. The major act in the madrassas is to divide the society among us and them. These madrassa divide the society on the basis of the religious lines and also breaks the ideology over which the society is being formed and the country has been founded, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). The most of the poor, jobless, uneducated and frustrated youths become prey of these madrassas and make their lives turn in to disrespect and hate in society, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). Absolutist: sometimes supported by sacred authority, the truth in its absolute sense is believed. This squashes dissent, questioning and critical thinking. Moral authority is added in us vs. them to make it good vs. evil, as stated by Biloslavo, (2004).
  • 31. 30 Threat-Oriented: Cooperation is caused in groups by external threats. This is intuitively known by good leaders. It is persistently reminded to their adherents that “us” are threatened by “them”. Because it is seen in its absolute sense that “us’ are good and noble and this also works as an opposition to non-believers and causes cohesion, (Jones, & O'Donnell, 2012) & (Roy, 2002). Hateful: Violent actions are energized by hate. Direct action is impelled on principled opposition. Facilitation to different mechanisms of dehumanization and disengagement is provided which helps in the erosion of physiological and social barriers in engaging violence. It is an important point in support of distinguishing a simple extremist from a violent terrorist, (John, 2003). 6. The threat is described in the section on The Militant Jihadist Terrorism Threat. Study on 117 homegrown jihadists in UK and USA is done empirically which described the manifestation of the radical process. This can help in establishing how far a person has come in the process of radicalization, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013). In the early stage, only ideological interpretations are trusted of the rigid set of religious authorities. Significant impact is put on others how to interpret what their faith demands, groom different scholars and role models, as stated by Bishoyi (2013) & Roy (2002). Also in early stage, Muslim faith’s legislated interpretation is adopted. For virtually every aspect of one’s life there are rules to be followed and not only for the practice of faith. For example it is considered sinful for women to laugh in the street or taking pictures or to play music. In the final stage of radicalization in order to advance in faith it is an obligation for believers to take an action of violence against infidels, (Jones, & O'Donnell, 2012). A fundamental conflict is perceived between the Islam and the west by the Muslims as they become more radicalized. It becomes ideologically critical to be loyal; they cannot have any kind of loyalty to any non-Muslim state their only obligation is to Islam. It is considered a violation of Allah’s rules even to participate in democratic process of one’s country because these rules are made by man, (Hashmi, 2010) & (Weinbaum, 2013). Any other alternative interpretations or practices have very low tolerance except from the rigid interpretation of Islam. It becomes a compulsion to impose your own beliefs on friends and family members after changing one’s own beliefs. It is seen as a personal affront any deviation from these
  • 32. 31 rigid interpretations by others, (Rashid, 2011). It is normally expressed in the form that other people are not practicing and good Muslim which usually ends up in violence. It separates individual from the people who were first an important part of their lives but they start to hate them as they are not practicing Muslims, as stated by Bishoyi (2013). In the later stages, religious and political believes are included in the process of radicalization. It is believed by the radicals that to subjugate Islam morally western powers have conspired. Muslim world was once ruled by the teachings of Allah under the caliphate rule they want to restore all that, (Dorschner, & Sherlock, 2009). It should be remembered that it is not illegal in United States to express radical or extremist’s views. Until it reaches the advance stages like engaging one’s self in any act of violence or other illegal behavior. A stricter standard of allegiance to the United States applies on a person who holds a U.S. Government security clearance or some other position of public trust. As described in The Militant Jihadist Terrorism Threat advocacy of militant jihadist is ground for denial or revocation of a security clearance or access to other sensitive information or installations if it is cleared by evidence of an absence of loyalty to the United States, (Weinbaum, 2013) & (Shezad, 2013). 4.2 Radicalization in Pakistan Radical Islam began showing its influence in Pakistan during 1979 When Afghan Jihad started against Soviet forces in Afghanistan and has since become an important factor in the conflict, resulting in several unconventional attacks on Pakistani Army targets and the fragmentation of the separatist movement of Baluchistan, (Ahrari, 2000). The terrorist tactics and radical beliefs of a number of Pakistani Taliban are unprecedented in Pakistan, but contrary to popular belief, radical Islam is embraced only by a minority of the population, (Chellaney, 2006). Believers of radical Islam to be widespread than it actually is due to the high level of participation and publicity of this minority in the conflict. Additionally, Pakistani practice a form of Sunni Islam with Sufi influences, and Sufis and Wahhabis have never had harmonious relations, (Roy, 2002). Societal transformation is a continuous process and it does not depend on the single factor. The phenomena of the transformation are being linked with the internal and external factors. Internally,
  • 33. 32 the religious disharmony, failing economy, education system, and dysfunctional government bodies are the. Externally, the clashes of the civilization and the generation of the war and anti- west sentiments are the reasons for the adopted policies and socio economic conditions, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). So in this assessment of the analytical work the analysis of the factors causing the radicalization in the Muslims have been intended to analyze. Moreover, the assessment is planned to base over exploration of factors which has resulted in expanding the perception of the people about radicalization, (Nasr, S. V. 2002). It is also intended to explore that what have forced people to change their perception and behavioral adaptation due to the Afghan and US war, especially after 1979. In addition, the need is to explore that how Islamic settings and education system in Pakistan is provoking the negative feelings of hate for the other people. In addition, this work has also set its focus over explaining the role of the Americans aids in dollar for the adaptation of war against terrorism by Pakistan government. 4.3 Exclusive Islamic Identity and Youth Radicalization The formation of Pakistan was specifically designed as an Islamic state from the British rule. It was later more endorsed by Zia-ul-Haq in the 80’s. He encouraged among Pakistani youth and adults the spread of individual exclusivist identities, (Dorschner, & Sherlock, 2009). Political and religious groups that seek to define themselves in alignment with Islam are furthered by radicalization, including indigenous culture in opposition to all else, (Weinbaum, 2013). The Lahore youth conducted some surveys in which 88 percent of elite school students stated that religion is their primary identity. Youngsters of Pakistan high level of recognition with their religious beliefs 50 percent said that their national identity is above their religious identity. 15 percent identified themselves as Pakistani where as 75 percent identified them as Muslims. Most of them said that their religion is far more important than their country. This kind of homogenized and extreme point of view can lead to violence in the name of Islam, (Kalra, & Butt, 2013) & (Hashmi, 2010). The “Enabling Environment” for Radicalization Violent terrorist acts are embedded in larger social and political milieu and are not an act of single person who works in isolation, (De Sousa, 2011). Radicalization can be explained in the form of a
  • 34. 33 pyramid, like on the top there are active terrorists, in the middle there are religious political organizations and in the end there are missionary Islamic organizations, (Dorschner, & Sherlock, 2009). The links between these three stages create an “enabling environment” that enhances an Islamic based identity, the radicalization of youth is used for militant purpose. These linkages can be categorized into three basic models  The encapsulating model, whereby an entire social network has been mobilized to form a large organizational form, encapsulating all three levels of the pyramid. For example, the Jamaat- ud-Dawa acts as a proselytizing actor with a network of mosques and educational institutions, as well as a service oriented NGO; it has increasingly taken on a political role through its messaging on culture and politics, while its militant role as the banned Lashkar-e-Taiba has been well documented, (De Sousa, 2011). The loosely-coupled model, where a shared space facilitates interaction between nominal sympathizers, supporters and militant actors, (Cohen, 2004). For example, a mosque or large congregations of missionary organizations, such as the Tableeghi Jamaat, allows for literatures of all levels to be distributed, and political and militant activists have the opportunity to interact with lower level sympathizers, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013).  The bridge model, where one organization bridges the initial pool of sympathizers with more militant organizations. As an example, the Jamiat-Ulema-e-Islam (JUI) is a religious-political party which acts as the political representative of the large Deobandis mosque-madrasa network, composed of various missionary organizations, (Shezad, 2013) & (Hashmi, 2010). It also acts both as an ideological guide as well as a channel for youth volunteers to join Taliban militant actors. During the 1990s, for example, the JUI-S faction led by Maulana Sami-ul Haq closed its madrasa schools to allow students to participate in the Afghan civil war alongside the Afghan Taliban. Similarly, the Jamaat-e-Islami both has a strong national student organization, the Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba, and is connected with militant organizations such as Hizbul-Mujahedeen, (De Sousa, 2011).
  • 35. 34 Although the methods used by missionary organization might seem peaceful so it is more likely that their message is more acceptable in youth and it is believed that these religious organizations are absolute. For instance missionary organizations like Al-Huda the female based or tableeghi jammat which is male based has the most reach in general youth, they have the potential to the receptiveness of youth, through the rejection of indigenous ethnic, national or tribal identities as well as foreign cultural and political signifiers groups by reinforcing messages of a primarily Islamic identity, and the rejection of pluralistic politics may contribute to alignment with more radical organizations, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013). Jammat e islami and JUI are the religious parties who have participated in the electoral process of the state, and have maintained an cordial relationship with the government but still in some selected situations endorsing violent jihad for example the Pakistani policies on Kashmir and Afghanistan in 80’s and 90’. Tahreek- e -Taliban Pakistan and Lashkar e jhangvi are a few of the examples of most militant organizations who take their stance to the extreme level in order to impose their kind of Islam, (De Sousa, 2011) & (Cohen, 2004). According to these militants to achieve a general goal for imposing an Islamic based government not only in Muslim countries but in the whole world a revolutionary action must be taken. Intra Isla-mist violence is raised in order to lead to power, and it also leads to sectarian differences. Pakistan is known to give space to much religious organization to operate, operate recruit and mobilize and even in some cases some active sectarian militant organizations, (Shehzad, 2013). In order to support regional policy objectives in neighboring Afghanistan or India has helped build a resource for the Pakistani military’s historical practice of selective support for certain militant actors for not just militant but also nonmilitant organizations serving bridging or encapsulating roles, (De Sousa, 2011). In a vibrant free market today, there exist 232 religious organizations and militants groups within the country having their head offices in Lahore and Punjab. Approximately 71 in Lahore and 100 in Punjab alone. Establishing parallel educational or training institutions, some militant groups operate openly in the country, distributing published materials and media collecting or extorting financial donations, (Rashid, 2011) & (Kalra, & Butt, 2013). By low levels of public education
  • 36. 35 provision the state’s education system also facilitates these groups, who are often able to fill a vacuum left. To draw youth from lower ends of the radicalization ”pyramid” upward toward active militancy the strength of these organizations leads to better marketing and recruitment, (Subramaniam, Spear, Vucetic, Chadha, Bhaskar, Gupta, & Subrahmanyam, 2013). 4.4 Madrassa education: a threat to peace and tolerance The explanation of the polarized system is being given by Nasr, (2000). It is the education given by the madrassas for dividing the entire society between us and them. They divide the society and the religious lines and thereby break the ideology in which society is being created and the country is being founded. Traditional the madrassas are the source of all the kinds of the knowledge transferred to the Muslims. They educate the Muslim students about the science subject and about the religion. In the current time, the role of madrassas has remained related only to teach the children about the religious education. In the countries like Pakistan, the madrassas are not properly governed and administered and that has become reason for provoking the elements like extremisms, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). The uncontrolled madrassas and education given by those madrassas are dated back to 1980s when the Saudi Arabia and USA has poured almost $4 billion for the establishment of the religious schools and madrassa, (Tellis, 2004). Since that time, madrassas have become the breeding ground of the religious extremism creation in Pakistan and have made the security condition in the country even worse. Pakistan has to face acute security issue. In order to tackle these issues, one of the ways is to take step in taming the religious education and its quality. The chief purpose of the education is to make the people enlighten so that understanding about the various issues of the country can be prevailed and prepare the people in distinguishing among the right and the wrong things, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). But this is not the scenario in Pakistan, as it was supposed by US commission over the International Religious Freedom, (Atran, 2010). It is being explored that almost every madrassa in Pakistan has religious biasness that has leaded towards the maligns of the minority groups and societal intolerance, (Jaffrelot, 2002).
  • 37. 36 Huge numbers of the Pakistanis are living in the small villages and towns. They have to face the feudalism, poverty, lacking of the awareness and illiteracy problem. These issues have left two conditions for these people. First is to abandon the education of their kids and second is to make them induct in the religious schools. Majority of the madrassa preach the students free, they also provide lodging and the boarding services for their students, (Singer, 2001). That is the mere reason for the hijacking of the minds of the youngsters and hypnotizing it with the extremism. It is quite important that government must articulate the education presented and taught in these madrassas so to prevent the hate and war in the religion, (Nasr, 2004). It is also being seen that in the normal schools of Pakistan Jihad-Bis-Saif or fighting with the sort is being given emphasized by Islam instead of provoking the preaching of Islam about purity, peace and submission to Allah and His people. The wars fought in the history have been given proper context in the text books, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). It is being highlighted from the study conducted by Roy, (2002), that most of the sectarian schools are getting their back and support from Iran and Saudi Arabia and they have resulted in dividing the society of Pakistan in to numerous sects. This has resulted in increasing the sectarian violence in Pakistan and has also increased the killing of thousands of citizens in the name of Shia and Sunni conflicts. The reason for this blood shed is again due to madrassas and their preaching that only the path followed by them is correct and they are only having right religious beliefs and the ways, (Haider, 2005). They have declared the followers of other sects as Non-Muslims or Kefirs and this is the normal practice seen in the majority of religious madrassas where they have target the young children as their audience. It is said that the religious extremism is being hit in majority of the nations and has become serious threat and also effecting Pakistan since years. The need is to tackle this problem as soon as it is possible or else the effect will be adverse and will push Pakistan in the Stone Age. The major act in the madrassas is to divide the society among us and them. These madrassa divide the society on the basis of the religious lines and also breaks the ideology over which the society is being formed and the country has been founded. The most of the poor, jobless, uneducated and frustrated youths become prey of these madrassas and make their lives turn in to disrespect and hate in society, (Roy, 2002). There are almost thousands of the madrassas in Pakistan which is working illegally and they are not registered yet. The numbers of unregistered madrassas in
  • 38. 37 Islamabad is approximately 83 which are established in the mosques and the seminaries. It is the matter of great thinking that how many youths are taking education in these madrassas and what type of education is being provided to them. The minds of these young students are like wet clay, thus it can be easily molded in to the shapes as desired by the extremists, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). In majority of the madrassas these minds are molded in the negative stance and as the youngsters are the real pillar of the economy and the country thus there negative development is making them rust on the entire nation. The figures shared by MacDonald, (2003) & Haider, (2005) of unregistered madrassas are almost 80,000 and they have millions of students in their hands which are turning as the religious extremists, (Islam, 1981). It is required by the government of Pakistan to take bold action in banning these misguided madrassas in the country. Also, the revision is required in their curriculum and proper education system’s establishment. The government bodies are responsible to form the educational institutes with their own designed and controlled curriculum. The madrassas are also required to get registered with the state government and there firing and hiring process must be governed by the state’s government. In addition, the entire curriculum of the normal schools must also be taken over by the government, (Davis, 2008). There must be teaching of peace and tolerance in the schools. It should be their tag lines and they must make their students acceptable to the tolerance and make them know about the real picture of Islam and its preaching, (Lall, 2008) & (Hafez, 2003). For changing the entire society, the need is to add more of the chapters about Islam and more emphasize is required to be given to the education of real meaning of jihads, tolerance and jihad Bin-Nafs or jihad within oneself. It is also required to establish a universal curriculum in the country which must be taught to all the sects of the country. Within which the curriculum for the religious schools must also be taught and importance of Islam and its preaching must be strengthened. There must also be emphasized given on the education of science as it is attained by many of the Muslim scholars, (MacDonald, 2003). With uniformity in the education system, there will be removal of the division among the sectarian and the religious basis. The madrassas will become place to give wide ideology to the young students and tend to spread oneness in the society and also tend to stop immoral subjects like unacceptability and intolerance so to rule it out from the society, (Davis, 2008) & (Islam, 1981). In addition, the madrassas have to go under modernization so that they do not appear as alien to
  • 39. 38 the other people who have accepted them as a place of generating the extremist in the society, (Irfani, 2004). The general mindset of the people who are sending their kids in madrassas are deemed to be backward and they are not much aware about the scientific progress. This has become one of the chief reasons for reforming and removing of the exposure in those people about the new ideas and the using of the new and modern teaching methods and subjects, (Esposito, 2002). In this domain, a scenario is shared by a teacher of Baluchistan that his students are not ready to accept the utility of English subject due to which he has to face biggest challenge. Most of the students have perception that by learning Islamic they will directly reach to heaven. There is no motive there to learn English and thereby they are not convinced to acquire English learning knowledge, (Ayyub, 1979) & (Rascoff, 2012). In some of the countries like Pakistan, the religious institutions are also engaged in the social working. However, madrassas of Pakistan has not shown involvement in the offering of the social services beside the impartment of education. The examples of social services can be seen in the temples of India where they render free medical services as the inoculat ion campaign and they also allow government to use their place for raising of the health awareness in the people, (Zahab, 2002) & (Roy, 2002). Whistle in madrassas the main concern is of continuous curriculum reforms only. They are more bothered to translate their some of the books from English to Urdu so that theirs students can easily understand the relevancy. The major purpose of this translation is to assure that the students can have better understanding of the new knowledge plus they can implement this knowledge in to their lives and they can also actively take part in the development of the country, (Esposito, 2002) & (Reetz, 2009). 4.5 Education in modern regular schools Regular school is opened to embrace the new changes, especially in the introduction of the new curricula in to their modern educational designs. The demands of the regular schools are of skilled and trained teachers so that they can teach the difficult subjects in science and English, (Ashour, 2011) & (Murshed, & Pavan, 2011). Regular schools also motivate the students to pursue higher education in the universities along with the Islamic studies so to have balanced information about world and religion. On the other hand, the madrassas’ students are taught with the Arabic, Islamic studies and Persian as well. They have been provided by the curriculum issued by United Nations
  • 40. 39 mandated University for Peace, Costa Rica in the Islamic context. The curriculum has been developed and deployed in consultation of the Islamic scholars in 2005 to 2007. This curriculum is mostly implemented in the south Asian madrassas of Bangladesh and Pakistan and they have integrated this curriculum with their existing one, (GITHENS‐MAZER, & Lambert, 2010). Education is important ingredient for growth and development of the entire nation. With the use of education and information system, nations have successfully acquired prosperity and development, (Wilner, & Dubouloz, 2010) & (Ahmad, 2005). The economic and human both developments are assured with the investment made in the attainment of the education. But in Pakistan, it is a biggest challenge. The regular education system of Pakistan is being rotten due to the rate of literacy has reached up to 55% (2012 and 2013 report). The education system of Pakistan has to undergo many challenges and crisis and some of the major problems are identified. There is being division of the students in to the two segments in the educational system of Pakistan. The division of the regular schools has been seen in the private schools that are mostly English mediums and the other is in Government schools, which are mostly Urdu medium. This has become one of the major reasons for the bad and poor educational system in the country, (Murshed, & Pavan, 2011). Also one of the core reasons which have been seen in the difference in the educational system is the gender biasness. People of Pakistan have conservative mind set and they feel reluctant to send their girls in the schools for the acquiring of the education. Due to this reason, ratio of the boys and the girls in the primary schools has been seen as 10:4, (Wilner, & Dubouloz, 2010). According to the report of Human Development, Pakistan is having 136th position with 49.9% of the educated population. The report of UNESCO has showed the rank of Pakistan on 113th position out of 120 for the education member in UN. The ethnic, economic and the socio-political crisis in the country have tended to affect the normal educational system in Pakistan. In addition, the quality of the education that has been provided to the students is also very bad. The teachers of the government schools are not trained, (GITHENS‐MAZER, & Lambert, 2010). Those people, who fail to get the job in any sector, try to get their job in educational institutes. And the reason as they are not trained, they become unable to train the entire nation. The attention is also required in the teaching of the rural areas where departments lack is found, (Abbas, 2008) & (Marsden, 2008).
  • 41. 40 Another reason is mentioned as poverty, which restricts the parents to send their children to the private schools for getting the high quality education. Government schools are the only option for the poor parents. And the untrained teachers of the government schools are not trained professionally, (Wilner, & Dubouloz, 2010) & (Ashour, 2009). The precious time of the students get wasted due to the lectures. The fund allocation for the educational sector of Pakistan, by the government is also very low, (Pargeter, 2009). Only 2% of the GDP is allocated to education and the need is to enhance this rate and improve the quality provided. For any country the educational development is very important. It is only cure for the disable economy and for the building of the tomorrow’s nation. The above mentioned problems can only be treated with the governmental support, (Johnson, & Mason, 2008). 4.6 Education employing for eradicating extremism: The 20th century is being marked as the century of humanity in the history, as almost 150 million people has been killed by the hands of other people. Same century has remained remarkable in knowing as the most promising century for the technological and intellectual invention. There has been great challenges inherited to the 21st century and it is hoped that the development of the previous century will be used for the promotion of prosperity and peace in the 21st century. This will have impact over the improvement in the quality of life of the people and thereby will allow the survival of the humanity, (Pargeter, 2009). 21st century is being loaded with the numbers of large challenges for global community. The challenges have inclusion of the exponential growth of the innovation and information, globalization of the business environment, availability of the information in terms of the volume, mode, speed, time and nature, access of the data, controlling of the intern organizational and international business processes in the real time, new level of the national and the international competition referred as hyper competition, highly uncertain and the chaotic environment of the business, energy, quality, increasing stress of acquiring skills, productivity, government regulations and the other stressors, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). Moreover, the extremism has been emerged in the society as the common trait in global world and it has posed threat over the prosperity, peace and harmony of the entire globe, (Johnson, & Mason, 2008).
  • 42. 41 Many people have considered education to be the only solution to the highlighted problem. They are right as the education is the commonly meaning of bringing change in the behavior of the people, (Woodward, Rohmaniyah, Amin, & Coleman, 2010). To educate the people is meaning to change the behavior of the people. Now the question is what to change and to what extent change must be brought in the society. The educational philosophies have shown the review and have highlighted the impact of education over the progressivism, perrennialism, essentialism, re- constructionism, modernism, eclecticism, and the post-modernism. And in the course of history the socio, political and economic condition has also shown benefits attainment from the education, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). The relationship mentioned by the educationalist among the power and knowledge and shown argument that the society classifies, distributes, selects and evaluates the educational knowledge for the public which is reflected in the distribution of the power and the social control. So it is narrated that the education is the only activity which has shown importance for the political and social dimensions, (Pargeter, 2009) & (Azzam, 2006). The knowledge is required to be properly organized in the curriculum of the schools so that it can be reflected in the social activities of the people and have the particular pattern seen in the failure and success of the economy. Now the question is that who is really responsible for defining the education to the nation, (Hamm, 2008). In the current time, the knowledge about the social, civic and the personal responsibilities is the key sources for the combating of terrorism and extremism, (Lall, 2008) & (Hafez, 2003). It is also showing the major framework for the 21st century skills acquisition. The sections that have been added in the 21st century skill framework has shown inclusion of: Life skills: The good teachers allow the students to incorporate the life sills in to pedagogy. The major challenge is to implement these important skills in to the schools strategically, broadly and deliberately, (Fair, Malhotra, & Shapiro, 2010). The life skills include the following: - Accountability - Leadership - Personal productivity - Ethics
  • 43. 42 - Self-direction - Personal responsibility - Adaptability - People skills - Social responsibility The skills framework has inclusion of: - Teaming, interpersonal skills and collaboration, - Effective communication - Interactive communication - Social, civic and the personal responsibilities The American association of the colleges and universities has shown inclusion of skills in 21st century framework as: - Social and personal responsibilities - Intercultural competence and knowledge - Civic engagement and knowledge about globe and locality - Foundation and the skills for the lifelong learning - Ethical actions and reasoning In order to combat the extremism spread through madrassas, and religious schools, the government of Pakistan has decided to take them under the national education system. This will be done under the National internal security policy. In a report issued by AFP, it is said that there are approximately 22,000 madrassas in the country that has become responsible for the spreading of extremism. In the parliament a united policy is being presented by Chaudhry Nisar that almost $78 billion cost have been incurred over the lives lost in a decade. However, it is equally documented by (Lall, 2008) & (Hafez, 2003) that all of the madrassas are not upfront from the problem and thereby it is not right to view them all as negative. There is problem creation from some of the madrassas and they are the reason for spreading of the extremism. These madrassas are gaining