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Crowdsourcing	
  
                          Scientific	
  Work
                             A	
  Comparative	
  Study	
  of	
  
                      Technologies,	
  Processes,	
  and	
  Outcomes	
  
                                   in	
  Citizen	
  Science

                                  Andrea	
  Wiggins
                                   11	
  April,	
  2012

    Kevin	
  Crowston	
  (Advisor)
                                                Geof	
  Bowker	
  (External	
  Reader)
    Rick	
  Bonney
                                                Murali	
  Venkatesh	
  (Internal	
  Reader)
    Jian	
  Qin
                                                John	
  Burdick	
  (Chair)
    Steve	
  Sawyer
Tuesday, May 15, 12
Citizen	
  Science
   • Projects	
  involving	
  the	
  public	
  with	
  scientists	
  in	
  collaborative	
  research.	
  
         -­‐ Crowdsourcing	
  scientific	
  work	
  of	
  data	
  collection	
  and	
  processing

         -­‐ Increasingly	
  ICT-­‐mediated

   • As	
  citizen	
  science	
  gains	
  in	
  popularity,	
  scientists	
  need	
  a	
  better	
  
     understanding	
  of	
  how	
  design	
  and	
  management	
  influence	
  scientific	
  
     outcomes,	
  particularly	
  for	
  ICT-­‐enabled	
  participation.	
  
   • Research	
  goals	
  
         -­‐ Describe	
  the	
  phenomenon	
  of	
  citizen	
  science.

         -­‐ Develop	
  an	
  empirically-­‐grounded	
  framework	
  that	
  describes	
  the	
  conditions,	
  
             processes,	
  and	
  products	
  of	
  citizen	
  science	
  projects.


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Related	
  Research
   • Public	
  participation	
  in	
  science
         -­‐ Purposes	
  and	
  forms	
  of	
  engagement                                         public
                                                                                               participation
         -­‐ Informal	
  science	
  education,	
  policy,	
  STS                                in science
                                                                                              cro                                 r
                                                                                                                              tee g
               •Irwin;	
  Bonney	
  et	
  al;	
  Cooper	
  et	
  al;	
  Wilderman           so wd-
                                                                                              urc                            n n
                                                                                                                          olu itori
                                                                                                  ing                    v n
                                                                                                                          mo
   • Scientific	
  collaboration                                                                            *



                                                                                                        infrastructure
                                                                                    online                                       scientific




                                                                                                            cyber-
                                                                                    communities                             collaboration
         -­‐ Broader	
  context	
  of	
  practice
               •Sonnenwald;	
  Finholt;	
  Lawrence	
  et	
  al

   • Online	
  communities
                                                                                          *   = citizen science


         -­‐ Participation	
  in	
  virtual	
  environments
               •Crowston;	
  Haythornthwaite;	
  Preece	
  &	
  Shneiderman

Tuesday, May 15, 12
Research	
  Questions

       How	
  do	
  virtuality	
  and	
  technology	
  alter	
  
       organizing	
  in	
  citizen	
  science?	
  


       How	
  do	
  virtuality	
  and	
  technology	
  shape	
  
       participation	
  in	
  citizen	
  science?	
  


       How	
  do	
  organizing	
  and	
  participation	
  influence	
  
       scientific	
  outcomes	
  in	
  citizen	
  science?	
  

Tuesday, May 15, 12
Cases




Tuesday, May 15, 12
Mountain	
  Watch
   • Monitoring	
  alpine	
  climate	
  change
         -­‐ Participation	
  involves:
               •Finding	
  monitoring	
  plots

               •Identifying	
  target	
  plants	
  and	
  their	
  phenophases

               •Recording	
  observations	
  on	
  paper

               •Dropping	
  off	
  data	
  sheet	
  at	
  facilities	
  or	
  entering	
  online

         -­‐ Started	
  in	
  2004	
  by	
  the	
  Appalachian	
  Mountain	
  Club
               •Primarily	
  in	
  White	
  Mountains	
  of	
  New	
  Hampshire

               •Combines	
  citizen	
  science	
  with	
  other	
  research	
  efforts

               •Intensive	
  study	
  of	
  factors	
  influencing	
  data	
  quality


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Great	
  Sunflower	
  Project
   • Collecting	
  data	
  on	
  pollinator	
  service	
  (bees!)
         -­‐ Participation	
  involves:
               •Planting	
  sunflowers

               •Creating	
  garden	
  description	
  on	
  Drupal	
  website

               •Recording	
  15-­‐minute	
  observation	
  samples	
  on	
  data	
  sheet

               •Online	
  data	
  entry

         -­‐ Started	
  in	
  2008	
  by	
  a	
  single	
  academic	
  researcher
               •Collects	
  data	
  across	
  North	
  America

               •Very	
  successful	
  in	
  attracting	
  volunteer	
  interest




Tuesday, May 15, 12
eBird
   • Collecting	
  bird	
  abundance	
  and	
  distribution	
  data
         -­‐ Participation	
  involves:
               •Choosing	
  observation	
  methods

               •Recording	
  bird	
  observations

               •Entering	
  observations	
  and	
  metadata	
  online

         -­‐ Launched	
  in	
  2002	
  by	
  Cornell	
  Lab	
  of	
  Ornithology	
  
             (with	
  National	
  Audubon	
  Society)

               •World’s	
  largest	
  biodiversity	
  data	
  set

               •Receives	
  between	
  2.5M	
  -­‐	
  3M	
  observations/month

               •Data	
  used	
  in	
  both	
  research	
  and	
  decision-­‐making	
  for	
  policy	
  and	
  land	
  management



Tuesday, May 15, 12
Comparative	
  Case	
  Selection

                      Criterion                Mountain	
  Watch              Great	
  Sunflower                        eBird

                                                Conservation,	
                                              Research,	
  education,	
  
                              Mission                                        Research,	
  education
                                             education,	
  recreation                                           conservation
         Purpose
                             Scientific	
     Climate	
  change	
  effects	
                                     Bird	
  abundance	
  &	
  
                                                                             Plant-­‐bee	
  relationships
                             interests          on	
  alpine	
  habitats                                          distribution
        Intended	
                                     Hikers                       Gardeners                         Birders
       Community

                            Institutions         Single	
  nonprofit                 Academic                Nonprofit	
  partnership
     Environment
                            Resources              1.5	
  FTE,	
  $15K            0.5	
  FTE,	
  $13K            4.5	
  FTE,	
  $300K


                               Paper         Structured	
  data	
  sheet    Structured	
  data	
  sheet       Variable	
  &	
  optional

                                             Organization	
  website	
         Open	
  source	
  CMS	
      Purpose-­‐built	
  software	
  
     Technologies              Digital             section                         website                         system

                            Data	
  access            Limited                      Very	
  limited                  Extensive

Tuesday, May 15, 12
Methods




Tuesday, May 15, 12
Data	
  Collection
   • Semi-­‐structured	
  interviews	
  with	
  project	
  organizers
         -­‐ Sampled	
  for	
  maximum	
  diversity	
  of	
  roles	
  and	
  perspectives,	
  with	
  individuals	
  
             from	
  7	
  organizations

         -­‐ Some	
  longitudinal	
  interviews,	
  additional	
  informal	
  interviews

   • Participant	
  observation
         -­‐ 300+	
  hours	
  of	
  birding,	
  3	
  years	
  of	
  sunflowers,	
  6	
  days	
  in	
  the	
  White	
  Mountains

         -­‐ Listservs,	
  forums,	
  beta	
  testing	
  interfaces	
  &	
  mobile	
  application

         -­‐ Extensive	
  involvement	
  in	
  citizen	
  science	
  organizer	
  community

   • Secondary	
  data,	
  documents,	
  &	
  artifacts


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Analysis
   • Concurrent	
  with	
  data	
  collection	
  and	
  theory	
  development
         -­‐ Iterative	
  deductive	
  and	
  inductive	
  coding                                                   Commitment

                                                                                              Sustainability                         Satisfaction



         -­‐ Rich	
  process	
  models                                                 Scientific                                                 Contributions
                                                                                       Interests

                                                                                                                                                          Individual

         -­‐ Concept	
  diagrams
                                                                           Community
                                                                                                                                                         Development

                                                                    Resources

                                                                                                                                                                  Scientific

   • Research	
  Quality
                                                                    Institutions
                                                                                                                                                                 Knowledge

                                                                     Mission                                                                                       Broader
                                                                                                                                                                   Impacts


         -­‐ Interviewees	
  reviewed	
  transcripts
                                                                    Technologies


                                                                                                                                                                   Science
                                                                              Skills

         -­‐ Key	
  informants	
  reviewed	
  case	
  chapters                     Biography
                                                                                                                                                          Design


                                                                                                                                                  Organizing
                                                                                          Networks

         -­‐ Expert	
  and	
  peer	
  review	
  of	
  findings                                  Personal Interests                Participation




         -­‐ Audit	
  trail,	
  ongoing	
  memos

         -­‐ Data	
  triangulation
Tuesday, May 15, 12
Findings




Tuesday, May 15, 12
Theoretical	
  Framework
   • Iteratively	
  developed
                                                                                           Organizational

         -­‐ Initial	
  version	
  based	
  on	
  
                                                                                             Emergent
                                                                                              States
                                                                                            Community

             literature,	
  used	
  to	
  guide	
  study                                    Sustainability



                                                                                             Individual

         -­‐ 16	
  versions	
  over	
  3	
  years                                            Emergent
                                                                                               States
                                                           Organizational                   Commitment
                                                              Inputs         Individual                      Individual

   • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐
                                                                               Inputs          Roles                         Organizational
                                                                                                              Outputs
                                                            Task Design                                                         Outputs
                                                                            Demographics                     Contributions     Knowledge
                                                            Technology

     Inputs	
  structure                                      Design

                                                            Organization
                                                                               Skills

                                                                             Motivation
                                                                                             Individual
                                                                                             Processes
                                                                                                             Satisfaction

                                                                                                              Learning
                                                                                                                             Communication

                                                                                                                               Innovation
                                                              Design
                                                                                               Joining


   • Example	
  of	
  a	
  relevant	
  flow:                                                 Contributing




                                                                                           Organizational

         -­‐ Design	
  &	
  Organizing	
  -­‐>	
                                            Processes
                                                                                             Scientific

             Participation	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                                             Research

                                                                                             Volunteer


             Contributions	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                                            Management

                                                                                               Data
                                                                                            Management

             Scientific	
  Knowledge


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Theoretical	
  Framework
                                                                            Environment

   • Iteratively	
  developed
         -­‐ Initial	
  version	
  based	
  on	
              Inputs           States         Products

             literature,	
  used	
  to	
  guide	
  study   Project Inputs
                                                                            Sustainability
                                                             Scientific                        Outcomes
                                                             Interests      Commitment        Scientific

         -­‐ 16	
  versions	
  over	
  3	
  years           Community       Satisfaction     Knowledge
                                                                                               Broader
                                                           Resources
                                                                                               Impacts
                                                           Institutions
   • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐                        Mission
                                                           Technologies
     Inputs	
  structure
   • Example	
  of	
  a	
  relevant	
  flow:                  Individual
                                                               Inputs
                                                                                               Outputs

                                                                             Processes       Contributions
                                                               Skills

         -­‐ Design	
  &	
  Organizing	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                               Science        Individual
                                                            Biography
                                                                                             Development
                                                             Networks          Design

             Participation	
  -­‐>	
                         Personal
                                                             Interests
                                                                             Organizing


             Contributions	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                             Participation



             Scientific	
  Knowledge


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Theoretical	
  Framework
                                                                            Environment

   • Iteratively	
  developed
         -­‐ Initial	
  version	
  based	
  on	
              Inputs           States         Products

             literature,	
  used	
  to	
  guide	
  study   Project Inputs
                                                                            Sustainability
                                                             Scientific                        Outcomes
                                                             Interests      Commitment        Scientific

         -­‐ 16	
  versions	
  over	
  3	
  years           Community       Satisfaction     Knowledge
                                                                                               Broader
                                                           Resources
                                                                                               Impacts
                                                           Institutions
   • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐                        Mission
                                                           Technologies
     Inputs	
  structure
   • Example	
  of	
  a	
  relevant	
  flow:                  Individual
                                                               Inputs
                                                                                               Outputs

                                                                             Processes       Contributions
                                                               Skills

         -­‐ Design	
  &	
  Organizing	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                               Science        Individual
                                                            Biography
                                                                                             Development
                                                             Networks          Design

             Participation	
  -­‐>	
                         Personal
                                                             Interests
                                                                             Organizing


             Contributions	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                             Participation



             Scientific	
  Knowledge


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Theoretical	
  Framework
                                                                            Environment

   • Iteratively	
  developed
         -­‐ Initial	
  version	
  based	
  on	
              Inputs           States         Products

             literature,	
  used	
  to	
  guide	
  study   Project Inputs
                                                                            Sustainability
                                                             Scientific                        Outcomes
                                                             Interests      Commitment        Scientific

         -­‐ 16	
  versions	
  over	
  3	
  years           Community       Satisfaction     Knowledge
                                                                                               Broader
                                                           Resources
                                                                                               Impacts
                                                           Institutions
   • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐                        Mission
                                                           Technologies
     Inputs	
  structure
   • Example	
  of	
  a	
  relevant	
  flow:                  Individual
                                                               Inputs
                                                                                               Outputs

                                                                             Processes       Contributions
                                                               Skills

         -­‐ Design	
  &	
  Organizing	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                               Science        Individual
                                                            Biography
                                                                                             Development
                                                             Networks          Design

             Participation	
  -­‐>	
                         Personal
                                                             Interests
                                                                             Organizing


             Contributions	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                             Participation



             Scientific	
  Knowledge


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Theoretical	
  Framework
                                                                            Environment

   • Iteratively	
  developed
         -­‐ Initial	
  version	
  based	
  on	
              Inputs           States         Products

             literature,	
  used	
  to	
  guide	
  study   Project Inputs
                                                                            Sustainability
                                                             Scientific                        Outcomes
                                                             Interests      Commitment        Scientific

         -­‐ 16	
  versions	
  over	
  3	
  years           Community       Satisfaction     Knowledge
                                                                                               Broader
                                                           Resources
                                                                                               Impacts
                                                           Institutions
   • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐                        Mission
                                                           Technologies
     Inputs	
  structure
   • Example	
  of	
  a	
  relevant	
  flow:                  Individual
                                                               Inputs
                                                                                               Outputs

                                                                             Processes       Contributions
                                                               Skills

         -­‐ Design	
  &	
  Organizing	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                               Science        Individual
                                                            Biography
                                                                                             Development
                                                             Networks          Design

             Participation	
  -­‐>	
                         Personal
                                                             Interests
                                                                             Organizing


             Contributions	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                             Participation



             Scientific	
  Knowledge


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Theoretical	
  Framework
                                                                            Environment

   • Iteratively	
  developed
         -­‐ Initial	
  version	
  based	
  on	
              Inputs           States         Products

             literature,	
  used	
  to	
  guide	
  study   Project Inputs
                                                                            Sustainability
                                                             Scientific                        Outcomes
                                                             Interests      Commitment        Scientific

         -­‐ 16	
  versions	
  over	
  3	
  years           Community       Satisfaction     Knowledge
                                                                                               Broader
                                                           Resources
                                                                                               Impacts
                                                           Institutions
   • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐                        Mission
                                                           Technologies
     Inputs	
  structure
   • Example	
  of	
  a	
  relevant	
  flow:                  Individual
                                                               Inputs
                                                                                               Outputs

                                                                             Processes       Contributions
                                                               Skills

         -­‐ Design	
  &	
  Organizing	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                               Science        Individual
                                                            Biography
                                                                                             Development
                                                             Networks          Design

             Participation	
  -­‐>	
                         Personal
                                                             Interests
                                                                             Organizing


             Contributions	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                             Participation



             Scientific	
  Knowledge


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Theoretical	
  Framework
                                                                            Environment

   • Iteratively	
  developed
         -­‐ Initial	
  version	
  based	
  on	
              Inputs           States         Products

             literature,	
  used	
  to	
  guide	
  study   Project Inputs
                                                                            Sustainability
                                                                                              Outcomes
                                                                ?           Commitment
                                                                                                  ?
         -­‐ 16	
  versions	
  over	
  3	
  years           Community       Satisfaction
                                                                                               Broader
                                                           Resources
                                                                                               Impacts
                                                           Institutions
   • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐                        Mission
                                                           Technologies
     Inputs	
  structure
   • Example	
  of	
  a	
  relevant	
  flow:                  Individual
                                                               Inputs
                                                                                               Outputs

                                                                             Processes       Contributions
                                                               Skills

         -­‐ Design	
  &	
  Organizing	
  -­‐>	
            Biography
                                                             Networks
                                                                                  ?
                                                                               Design
                                                                                              Individual
                                                                                             Development

             Participation	
  -­‐>	
                         Personal
                                                             Interests
                                                                             Organizing


             Contributions	
  -­‐>	
  
                                                                             Participation



             Scientific	
  Knowledge


Tuesday, May 15, 12
Emergent	
  Themes
   1. Project	
  design	
  approaches	
  that	
  favor	
  science	
  versus	
  hobbies	
  for	
  
      participation	
  design
   2. Design	
  and	
  organizing	
  implications	
  of	
  engaging	
  communities	
  of	
  
      practice
   3. Relationships	
  between	
  physical	
  environment,	
  technologies,	
  
      participant	
  experiences,	
  and	
  data	
  quality
   4. Information	
  technology	
  tradeoffs:	
  helpful	
  for	
  scale	
  and	
  
      communication,	
  challenging	
  for	
  usability	
  and	
  resources
   5. Resources	
  and	
  sustainability	
  relate	
  to	
  institutions	
  and	
  scale	
  of	
  
      participation



Tuesday, May 15, 12
How	
  do	
  virtuality	
  and	
  technologies	
  
                      alter	
  organizing	
  in	
  citizen	
  science?
   • Virtuality	
  is	
  inherent	
  and	
  a	
  key	
  benefit,	
  but	
  leads	
  to	
  questions	
  about	
  
     quality
         -­‐ “People	
  would	
  gravitate	
  towards	
  the	
  really	
  charismatic	
  species,	
  which	
  in	
  the	
  
             White	
  Mountains	
  is	
  diapensia.	
  So	
  people	
  would	
  go	
  out	
  with	
  these	
  diapensia-­‐
             tinted	
  glasses,	
  and	
  they’d	
  see	
  it	
  everywhere	
  and	
  pass	
  over	
  the	
  least	
  well-­‐known	
  
             species.”

   • Enables	
  large-­‐scale	
  research	
  that	
  is	
  more	
  like	
  crowdsourcing	
  than	
  
     other	
  forms	
  of	
  scientific	
  collaboration
         -­‐ “If	
  technology	
  makes	
  new	
  things	
  available,	
  you	
  change	
  your	
  focus	
  to	
  exploit	
  it.”

   • Reduces	
  coordination	
  costs	
  and	
  improves	
  quality,	
  but	
  ICT	
  often	
  
     unsuited	
  for	
  use	
  in	
  the	
  field
         -­‐ “Someone	
  entered	
  in	
  data	
  that	
  said	
  that	
  they	
  saw	
  a	
  bee	
  after	
  130	
  minutes,	
  and	
  I	
  
             think	
  what	
  they	
  were	
  putting	
  in	
  is	
  that	
  it	
  was	
  at	
  1:30	
  in	
  the	
  afternoon.”
Tuesday, May 15, 12
How	
  do	
  virtuality	
  and	
  technologies	
  
                      shape	
  participation	
  in	
  citizen	
  science?
   • Opens	
  participation	
  opportunities	
  to	
  larger,	
  more	
  diverse	
  population
         -­‐ “The	
  skill	
  base	
  varies	
  from	
  Master	
  gardeners	
  and	
  beekeepers	
  to	
  amateur	
  first-­‐time	
  
             gardeners.	
  ...	
  Our	
  audience	
  skews	
  a	
  little	
  older.	
  There	
  are	
  far	
  fewer	
  schoolchildren	
  who	
  
             participate	
  than	
  I	
  thought	
  there	
  might	
  be.”

   • Importance	
  of	
  place:	
  geographic	
  biases	
  and	
  autonomy,	
  functional	
  
     constraints	
  of	
  and	
  emotional	
  relationships	
  to	
  place
         -­‐ “Folks	
  do	
  have	
  a	
  real	
  connection	
  to	
  these	
  mountains.	
  So	
  to	
  feel	
  like	
  they	
  can	
  do	
  
             something	
  to	
  help	
  out,	
  and	
  to	
  protect,	
  and	
  get	
  a	
  handle	
  on	
  what	
  is	
  actually	
  happening	
  
             up	
  here	
  in	
  the	
  mountains,	
  it’s	
  valuable.”

   • Leads	
  to	
  usability	
  issues	
  for	
  some,	
  but	
  can	
  also	
  be	
  rewarding	
  and	
  more	
  
     scalable
         -­‐ “Some	
  people	
  have	
  difficulty	
  printing	
  out	
  the	
  data	
  form,	
  and	
  writing	
  all	
  this	
  stuff	
  in	
  
             while	
  they’re	
  observing,	
  and	
  taking	
  it	
  back,	
  and	
  then	
  entering	
  it	
  in.”

         -­‐ “Let’s	
  give	
  them	
  tools	
  to	
  do	
  what	
  they	
  want,	
  and	
  they’ll	
  give	
  us	
  all	
  of	
  their	
  data.”
Tuesday, May 15, 12
How	
  do	
  organizing	
  and	
  participation	
  influence	
  
                   scientific	
  outcomes	
  in	
  citizen	
  science?
   • Diverse	
  types	
  of	
  scientific	
  outcomes	
  suggest	
  more	
  holistic	
  criteria	
  for	
  
     evaluating	
  project	
  success
         -­‐ “[eBird]	
  is	
  just	
  getting	
  to	
  the	
  point	
  where	
  we	
  are	
  going	
  to	
  see	
  more	
  and	
  more	
  
             information	
  come	
  out	
  that	
  will	
  help	
  drive	
  policy	
  and	
  decision-­‐making.”

   • Keep	
  participants	
  happy:	
  greater	
  quality	
  and/or	
  quantity	
  of	
  
     contributions	
  improve	
  outcomes
         -­‐ “The	
  more	
  people	
  enjoy	
  the	
  project	
  and	
  get	
  some	
  reward	
  then	
  the	
  better	
  off	
  
             you’ll	
  be	
  for	
  sustaining	
  it.	
  We’ve	
  seen	
  significant	
  growth	
  that	
  hasn’t	
  slowed	
  
             down	
  since	
  we	
  turned	
  the	
  switch	
  on	
  and	
  changed	
  the	
  way	
  we	
  think	
  about	
  it.”




Tuesday, May 15, 12
Limitations	
  &	
  Future	
  Work
   • Limitations
         -­‐ Depth	
  rather	
  than	
  breadth

         -­‐ Focused	
  primarily	
  on	
  organizers

   • Future	
  work
         -­‐ Integrate	
  findings	
  and	
  framework	
  with	
  participant-­‐oriented	
  studies

         -­‐ Compare	
  to	
  entirely	
  online	
  citizen	
  science	
  projects

         -­‐ Work	
  with	
  organizer	
  community	
  to	
  translate	
  findings	
  into	
  recommendations	
  
             for	
  practice




Tuesday, May 15, 12
Contributions
   • Theoretical	
  framework	
  
         -­‐ Complements	
  and	
  extends	
  prior	
  models

         -­‐ Foundation	
  for	
  future	
  research	
  with	
  room	
  for	
  expansion	
  &	
  refinement

   • Case	
  studies
         -­‐ In-­‐depth	
  description	
  and	
  comparison

   • New	
  prospective	
  best	
  practices
         -­‐ Sustainability	
  planning	
  in	
  context	
  of	
  organizations	
  and	
  resources

         -­‐ Aligning	
  scientific	
  and	
  personal	
  interests	
  as	
  much	
  as	
  possible

         -­‐ Making	
  explicit	
  links	
  between	
  individuals,	
  communities,	
  and	
  organizing

         -­‐ Engaging	
  non-­‐scientist	
  community	
  members	
  as	
  organizers
Tuesday, May 15, 12
Thanks
   • Committee
   • Case	
  study	
  projects
         -­‐ Mountain	
  Watch

         -­‐ Great	
  Sunflower	
  Project

         -­‐ eBird

   • Writing	
  group
         -­‐ Mohammad	
  Jarrahi	
  &	
  
             Jaime	
  Snyder

   • Everett	
  Wiggins
   • U.S.	
  National	
  Science	
  Foundation	
  Grants	
  09-­‐43049	
  &	
  11-­‐11107
Tuesday, May 15, 12

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Crowdsourcing Scientific Work: A Comparative Study of Technologies, Processes, and Outcomes in Citizen Science

  • 1. Crowdsourcing   Scientific  Work A  Comparative  Study  of   Technologies,  Processes,  and  Outcomes   in  Citizen  Science Andrea  Wiggins 11  April,  2012 Kevin  Crowston  (Advisor) Geof  Bowker  (External  Reader) Rick  Bonney Murali  Venkatesh  (Internal  Reader) Jian  Qin John  Burdick  (Chair) Steve  Sawyer Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 2. Citizen  Science • Projects  involving  the  public  with  scientists  in  collaborative  research.   -­‐ Crowdsourcing  scientific  work  of  data  collection  and  processing -­‐ Increasingly  ICT-­‐mediated • As  citizen  science  gains  in  popularity,  scientists  need  a  better   understanding  of  how  design  and  management  influence  scientific   outcomes,  particularly  for  ICT-­‐enabled  participation.   • Research  goals   -­‐ Describe  the  phenomenon  of  citizen  science. -­‐ Develop  an  empirically-­‐grounded  framework  that  describes  the  conditions,   processes,  and  products  of  citizen  science  projects. Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 3. Related  Research • Public  participation  in  science -­‐ Purposes  and  forms  of  engagement public participation -­‐ Informal  science  education,  policy,  STS in science cro r tee g •Irwin;  Bonney  et  al;  Cooper  et  al;  Wilderman so wd- urc n n olu itori ing v n mo • Scientific  collaboration * infrastructure online scientific cyber- communities collaboration -­‐ Broader  context  of  practice •Sonnenwald;  Finholt;  Lawrence  et  al • Online  communities * = citizen science -­‐ Participation  in  virtual  environments •Crowston;  Haythornthwaite;  Preece  &  Shneiderman Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 4. Research  Questions How  do  virtuality  and  technology  alter   organizing  in  citizen  science?   How  do  virtuality  and  technology  shape   participation  in  citizen  science?   How  do  organizing  and  participation  influence   scientific  outcomes  in  citizen  science?   Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 6. Mountain  Watch • Monitoring  alpine  climate  change -­‐ Participation  involves: •Finding  monitoring  plots •Identifying  target  plants  and  their  phenophases •Recording  observations  on  paper •Dropping  off  data  sheet  at  facilities  or  entering  online -­‐ Started  in  2004  by  the  Appalachian  Mountain  Club •Primarily  in  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire •Combines  citizen  science  with  other  research  efforts •Intensive  study  of  factors  influencing  data  quality Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 7. Great  Sunflower  Project • Collecting  data  on  pollinator  service  (bees!) -­‐ Participation  involves: •Planting  sunflowers •Creating  garden  description  on  Drupal  website •Recording  15-­‐minute  observation  samples  on  data  sheet •Online  data  entry -­‐ Started  in  2008  by  a  single  academic  researcher •Collects  data  across  North  America •Very  successful  in  attracting  volunteer  interest Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 8. eBird • Collecting  bird  abundance  and  distribution  data -­‐ Participation  involves: •Choosing  observation  methods •Recording  bird  observations •Entering  observations  and  metadata  online -­‐ Launched  in  2002  by  Cornell  Lab  of  Ornithology   (with  National  Audubon  Society) •World’s  largest  biodiversity  data  set •Receives  between  2.5M  -­‐  3M  observations/month •Data  used  in  both  research  and  decision-­‐making  for  policy  and  land  management Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 9. Comparative  Case  Selection Criterion Mountain  Watch Great  Sunflower eBird Conservation,   Research,  education,   Mission Research,  education education,  recreation conservation Purpose Scientific   Climate  change  effects   Bird  abundance  &   Plant-­‐bee  relationships interests on  alpine  habitats distribution Intended   Hikers Gardeners Birders Community Institutions Single  nonprofit Academic Nonprofit  partnership Environment Resources 1.5  FTE,  $15K 0.5  FTE,  $13K 4.5  FTE,  $300K Paper Structured  data  sheet Structured  data  sheet Variable  &  optional Organization  website   Open  source  CMS   Purpose-­‐built  software   Technologies Digital section website system Data  access Limited Very  limited Extensive Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 11. Data  Collection • Semi-­‐structured  interviews  with  project  organizers -­‐ Sampled  for  maximum  diversity  of  roles  and  perspectives,  with  individuals   from  7  organizations -­‐ Some  longitudinal  interviews,  additional  informal  interviews • Participant  observation -­‐ 300+  hours  of  birding,  3  years  of  sunflowers,  6  days  in  the  White  Mountains -­‐ Listservs,  forums,  beta  testing  interfaces  &  mobile  application -­‐ Extensive  involvement  in  citizen  science  organizer  community • Secondary  data,  documents,  &  artifacts Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 12. Analysis • Concurrent  with  data  collection  and  theory  development -­‐ Iterative  deductive  and  inductive  coding Commitment Sustainability Satisfaction -­‐ Rich  process  models Scientific Contributions Interests Individual -­‐ Concept  diagrams Community Development Resources Scientific • Research  Quality Institutions Knowledge Mission Broader Impacts -­‐ Interviewees  reviewed  transcripts Technologies Science Skills -­‐ Key  informants  reviewed  case  chapters Biography Design Organizing Networks -­‐ Expert  and  peer  review  of  findings Personal Interests Participation -­‐ Audit  trail,  ongoing  memos -­‐ Data  triangulation Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 14. Theoretical  Framework • Iteratively  developed Organizational -­‐ Initial  version  based  on   Emergent States Community literature,  used  to  guide  study Sustainability Individual -­‐ 16  versions  over  3  years Emergent States Organizational Commitment Inputs Individual Individual • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐ Inputs Roles Organizational Outputs Task Design Outputs Demographics Contributions Knowledge Technology Inputs  structure Design Organization Skills Motivation Individual Processes Satisfaction Learning Communication Innovation Design Joining • Example  of  a  relevant  flow: Contributing Organizational -­‐ Design  &  Organizing  -­‐>   Processes Scientific Participation  -­‐>   Research Volunteer Contributions  -­‐>   Management Data Management Scientific  Knowledge Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 15. Theoretical  Framework Environment • Iteratively  developed -­‐ Initial  version  based  on   Inputs States Products literature,  used  to  guide  study Project Inputs Sustainability Scientific Outcomes Interests Commitment Scientific -­‐ 16  versions  over  3  years Community Satisfaction Knowledge Broader Resources Impacts Institutions • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐ Mission Technologies Inputs  structure • Example  of  a  relevant  flow: Individual Inputs Outputs Processes Contributions Skills -­‐ Design  &  Organizing  -­‐>   Science Individual Biography Development Networks Design Participation  -­‐>   Personal Interests Organizing Contributions  -­‐>   Participation Scientific  Knowledge Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 16. Theoretical  Framework Environment • Iteratively  developed -­‐ Initial  version  based  on   Inputs States Products literature,  used  to  guide  study Project Inputs Sustainability Scientific Outcomes Interests Commitment Scientific -­‐ 16  versions  over  3  years Community Satisfaction Knowledge Broader Resources Impacts Institutions • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐ Mission Technologies Inputs  structure • Example  of  a  relevant  flow: Individual Inputs Outputs Processes Contributions Skills -­‐ Design  &  Organizing  -­‐>   Science Individual Biography Development Networks Design Participation  -­‐>   Personal Interests Organizing Contributions  -­‐>   Participation Scientific  Knowledge Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 17. Theoretical  Framework Environment • Iteratively  developed -­‐ Initial  version  based  on   Inputs States Products literature,  used  to  guide  study Project Inputs Sustainability Scientific Outcomes Interests Commitment Scientific -­‐ 16  versions  over  3  years Community Satisfaction Knowledge Broader Resources Impacts Institutions • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐ Mission Technologies Inputs  structure • Example  of  a  relevant  flow: Individual Inputs Outputs Processes Contributions Skills -­‐ Design  &  Organizing  -­‐>   Science Individual Biography Development Networks Design Participation  -­‐>   Personal Interests Organizing Contributions  -­‐>   Participation Scientific  Knowledge Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 18. Theoretical  Framework Environment • Iteratively  developed -­‐ Initial  version  based  on   Inputs States Products literature,  used  to  guide  study Project Inputs Sustainability Scientific Outcomes Interests Commitment Scientific -­‐ 16  versions  over  3  years Community Satisfaction Knowledge Broader Resources Impacts Institutions • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐ Mission Technologies Inputs  structure • Example  of  a  relevant  flow: Individual Inputs Outputs Processes Contributions Skills -­‐ Design  &  Organizing  -­‐>   Science Individual Biography Development Networks Design Participation  -­‐>   Personal Interests Organizing Contributions  -­‐>   Participation Scientific  Knowledge Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 19. Theoretical  Framework Environment • Iteratively  developed -­‐ Initial  version  based  on   Inputs States Products literature,  used  to  guide  study Project Inputs Sustainability Scientific Outcomes Interests Commitment Scientific -­‐ 16  versions  over  3  years Community Satisfaction Knowledge Broader Resources Impacts Institutions • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐ Mission Technologies Inputs  structure • Example  of  a  relevant  flow: Individual Inputs Outputs Processes Contributions Skills -­‐ Design  &  Organizing  -­‐>   Science Individual Biography Development Networks Design Participation  -­‐>   Personal Interests Organizing Contributions  -­‐>   Participation Scientific  Knowledge Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 20. Theoretical  Framework Environment • Iteratively  developed -­‐ Initial  version  based  on   Inputs States Products literature,  used  to  guide  study Project Inputs Sustainability Outcomes ? Commitment ? -­‐ 16  versions  over  3  years Community Satisfaction Broader Resources Impacts Institutions • Inputs-­‐Moderators-­‐Outputs-­‐ Mission Technologies Inputs  structure • Example  of  a  relevant  flow: Individual Inputs Outputs Processes Contributions Skills -­‐ Design  &  Organizing  -­‐>   Biography Networks ? Design Individual Development Participation  -­‐>   Personal Interests Organizing Contributions  -­‐>   Participation Scientific  Knowledge Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 21. Emergent  Themes 1. Project  design  approaches  that  favor  science  versus  hobbies  for   participation  design 2. Design  and  organizing  implications  of  engaging  communities  of   practice 3. Relationships  between  physical  environment,  technologies,   participant  experiences,  and  data  quality 4. Information  technology  tradeoffs:  helpful  for  scale  and   communication,  challenging  for  usability  and  resources 5. Resources  and  sustainability  relate  to  institutions  and  scale  of   participation Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 22. How  do  virtuality  and  technologies   alter  organizing  in  citizen  science? • Virtuality  is  inherent  and  a  key  benefit,  but  leads  to  questions  about   quality -­‐ “People  would  gravitate  towards  the  really  charismatic  species,  which  in  the   White  Mountains  is  diapensia.  So  people  would  go  out  with  these  diapensia-­‐ tinted  glasses,  and  they’d  see  it  everywhere  and  pass  over  the  least  well-­‐known   species.” • Enables  large-­‐scale  research  that  is  more  like  crowdsourcing  than   other  forms  of  scientific  collaboration -­‐ “If  technology  makes  new  things  available,  you  change  your  focus  to  exploit  it.” • Reduces  coordination  costs  and  improves  quality,  but  ICT  often   unsuited  for  use  in  the  field -­‐ “Someone  entered  in  data  that  said  that  they  saw  a  bee  after  130  minutes,  and  I   think  what  they  were  putting  in  is  that  it  was  at  1:30  in  the  afternoon.” Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 23. How  do  virtuality  and  technologies   shape  participation  in  citizen  science? • Opens  participation  opportunities  to  larger,  more  diverse  population -­‐ “The  skill  base  varies  from  Master  gardeners  and  beekeepers  to  amateur  first-­‐time   gardeners.  ...  Our  audience  skews  a  little  older.  There  are  far  fewer  schoolchildren  who   participate  than  I  thought  there  might  be.” • Importance  of  place:  geographic  biases  and  autonomy,  functional   constraints  of  and  emotional  relationships  to  place -­‐ “Folks  do  have  a  real  connection  to  these  mountains.  So  to  feel  like  they  can  do   something  to  help  out,  and  to  protect,  and  get  a  handle  on  what  is  actually  happening   up  here  in  the  mountains,  it’s  valuable.” • Leads  to  usability  issues  for  some,  but  can  also  be  rewarding  and  more   scalable -­‐ “Some  people  have  difficulty  printing  out  the  data  form,  and  writing  all  this  stuff  in   while  they’re  observing,  and  taking  it  back,  and  then  entering  it  in.” -­‐ “Let’s  give  them  tools  to  do  what  they  want,  and  they’ll  give  us  all  of  their  data.” Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 24. How  do  organizing  and  participation  influence   scientific  outcomes  in  citizen  science? • Diverse  types  of  scientific  outcomes  suggest  more  holistic  criteria  for   evaluating  project  success -­‐ “[eBird]  is  just  getting  to  the  point  where  we  are  going  to  see  more  and  more   information  come  out  that  will  help  drive  policy  and  decision-­‐making.” • Keep  participants  happy:  greater  quality  and/or  quantity  of   contributions  improve  outcomes -­‐ “The  more  people  enjoy  the  project  and  get  some  reward  then  the  better  off   you’ll  be  for  sustaining  it.  We’ve  seen  significant  growth  that  hasn’t  slowed   down  since  we  turned  the  switch  on  and  changed  the  way  we  think  about  it.” Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 25. Limitations  &  Future  Work • Limitations -­‐ Depth  rather  than  breadth -­‐ Focused  primarily  on  organizers • Future  work -­‐ Integrate  findings  and  framework  with  participant-­‐oriented  studies -­‐ Compare  to  entirely  online  citizen  science  projects -­‐ Work  with  organizer  community  to  translate  findings  into  recommendations   for  practice Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 26. Contributions • Theoretical  framework   -­‐ Complements  and  extends  prior  models -­‐ Foundation  for  future  research  with  room  for  expansion  &  refinement • Case  studies -­‐ In-­‐depth  description  and  comparison • New  prospective  best  practices -­‐ Sustainability  planning  in  context  of  organizations  and  resources -­‐ Aligning  scientific  and  personal  interests  as  much  as  possible -­‐ Making  explicit  links  between  individuals,  communities,  and  organizing -­‐ Engaging  non-­‐scientist  community  members  as  organizers Tuesday, May 15, 12
  • 27. Thanks • Committee • Case  study  projects -­‐ Mountain  Watch -­‐ Great  Sunflower  Project -­‐ eBird • Writing  group -­‐ Mohammad  Jarrahi  &   Jaime  Snyder • Everett  Wiggins • U.S.  National  Science  Foundation  Grants  09-­‐43049  &  11-­‐11107 Tuesday, May 15, 12