This document provides information on various topics related to specimen preservation techniques including embalming, museum specimen preservation, and karyotyping. It discusses the process of embalming a human body, including the steps to prepare, inject embalming chemicals, and reconstruct the body. It explains that embalming preserves the body temporarily but does not prevent decomposition forever. The document also outlines the basic steps museums use to preserve specimens, including reception, preparation, fixation, restoration, and presentation. Finally, it describes the process of karyotyping, including sample collection, cell culturing, chromosome staining and analysis to determine an individual's chromosome number and structure.

1. By,
S.SHRUTHIVASAN
BSC.,CLT
DR.NGP Arts and Science
College

2.  Embalmingof human cadavers
 Museumtechniques
 Basicprinciples of karyotyping

3. What is embalming?
Embalmingistheartandscienceofpreserving
humanremainsbytreatingthem(initsmodern
formwithchemicals)toforestall decomposition.
Theintentionis tokeepthemsuitablefor
publicdisplayata funeral,forreligiousreasons,or
formedical andscientificpurposessuchastheir
useasanatomical specimens

4. The maingoalof embalmingis to
preserve the bodyto make it suitablefor
publicdisplayat funeral,for a long
distance transportation, or for medical or
scientificpurposessuchas anatomical
research.
It alsogivesthe bodywhat some
considera more ‘life-like’ appearance
whichsomefamilieswant fora public
viewing

5.  Makesure that the face up.
 Removeany clothing thatthe personis wearing.
 Disinfectthe mouth, eyes, nose, and other
orifices.
 Shavethe body.
 Breakthe rigormortisby massagingthe body.
 Close the eyesand mouthand set it naturally.

6.  Moisturizethe features.
 Choosethe incision(surgical cut) site.
 Makeyourincision
 Turnon yourembalmingmachineand distribute
the fluid
 Slowlydecreasethe pressure.
 Finishwhenyou haveembalmedto yoursatisfaction.
 Use a trocar(Surgical instrument usedfor
withdrawingfluidfroma body)toaspiratethe
organs,
 Aspirate (suction)the chest cavity

7. Removethe trocarand closethe holewitha
trocarscrew.
Washthe bodythoroughly.
Touchup the features.
Dressthe body.
Placethe bodyin the casket.

15. HOWWELLDOESIT PRESERVETHEBODY?
Embalmingdoesnotpreservethebodyforever,it merelydelays
theinevitableandnaturall consequencesof death.
 Therateof decompositionwillvary,dependinguponthe
chemicalsandmethodsused,andthehumidityand
temperatureof finalrestingplace.
 Ambient temperaturehasmoreeffect onthedecomposition
processthantheamountof timeelapsedsincedeath,whether
thebodyis embalmedor not.
 In a warmclimate,a bodywilldecomposerapidly

16. Typicallyembalmingfluidcontainsa
mixtureof :
formaldehyde
methanol
other solvents.
The formaldehydecontent generallyranges
from5 to 29 percentand the methanol content
mayrangefrom9 to 56 percent.

17. Fluids used for embalming

18. InstrumentsUsedFor Embalming

19. Embalmingchemicalsarea varietyof
preservatives,sanitisinganddisinfectantagentsand
additivesusedin modernembalmingtotemporarily
preventdecompositionandrestorea natural
appearanceforviewinga bodyafterdeath.A
mixtureofthesechemicalsis knownasembalming
fluidandis usedtopreserve cadavers,sometimes
onlyuntil thefuneral,othertimesindefinitely

20. Embalmingis commonlyusedin US and Canada
It is neitherdiscouragedor encouragedbasedon
religionand beliefs.
Embalmingis mandatedwhena bodycrossesthe state
lines.
Embalmingprovidesno publichealthbenefits
accordingto the U.S centersfor diseasecontroland
Canadianhealth authorities.
But in fact embalmingchemicalsarehighly toxic.
Embalmersarerequiredto wear a respirator andfull
bodycoveringwhileembalming.

21. ARE THERE ANY ALTERNATIVES FOR
EMBALMING?
Refrigerationcan beusedto maintaina body
whileawaitinga funeral service or whenthereis a
delayin makingarrangements not all funeral
homeshavingrefrigerationfacilities, butmost
hospitalsdo.

22. Legbefore
embalming
Embalmedleg

24. Any specimensfor museumare handledby
followingsteps:
 1. Reception
 2. Preparation
 3. Fixation
 4. Restoration
 5.Preservation
 6. Presentation

25. • Initially, mainly bones and skulls were collected.
• Drying was the only preservation technique known at the
time, and this was more suitedto bones than tissue and organs.
• Fromthe 17thcentury, specimens were preservedin spirits, an
art in whichAmsterdamanatomist Frederik Ruysch (1638-1731)
gained worldrenown.
• The 'strong water’ used for preservation was originally alcohol
(c. 60%), but formalin was used fromthe end of the 19thcentury
onwards.
• New conservation methods made it possible to prevent all kinds
of tissue and organs fromdecaying. This meant that they could
be studied in glass bottles and jars, year after year.

26. What is mean by specimen preservation?
• Specimen preservation means “long– termpreservation
of organisms either plant or animal in the best possible
condition. So that it can be accessed in future as
reference collection for scientific purposes”.
• Many chemical methods are used to preserve both
vertebrate and invertebrate specimens for maintenance
purposes .

27. Why specimens are preserved?
• Taxonomic reasons
• For detailed examination
• For morphological study of particular
animal as each and every animal can’t be
in researcher’s vicinity.
• For zoological museumcollection

28. Steps for specimen preservation
• Killing and relaxing of animal
• fixation(stops cellular respiration,
kills bacteria within the organism,
a good penetrating ability).
• Storage in bottles, jar vials, trays.

29. Types of specimens
1. Entire fluid – preserved animals
purpose: for studying anatomy and histology, fluid
preservation may change the fur color.
2. Study skins with skulls/partial skeletons ( some bones in skin)
purpose : for studying color , hair quality and mounting
patterns.
3. Mountedskins: with partial or entire skeleton( some bones
may remain in the skin, dependent on the method of
preservation ) or freeze – dried specimens.
4. Entire skeletons : for instance for studying anatomy,
geographic variation or for age determination.

30. Storage
It shouldbe kept in safe, water tight, spill – proof bottles,
Example : pep – bottles it shouldalways be clearly labeled

32. What is karyotyping?
 A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in
the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
 The term is also used for the complete set of chromosomes in a
species, or an individual organism
 Karyotypes describe the chromosome count of an organism and
what these chromosomes look like under a light microscope
 Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres
banding pattern, any differences between the sex chromosomes
and any other physical characteristics.
 The preparation and study of Karyotypes is part of cytogenetics

33. • The study of whole sets of chromosomes is sometimes known as karyology.
• The chromosomes are depicted in a standard format known as a
Karyogram or idiogram: in pairs, ordered by size and position of
centromere for chromosomes of the same size.
• The basic number of chromosomes in the somatic cells of an individual or
a species is called the somatic number and is designated 2n.
• Thus, in humans 2n = 46. In the germ-line (the sex cells) the chromosome
number is n (humans: n = 23)
• So, in normal diploid organisms, autosomal chromosomes are present in
two copies. There may, or may not, be sex chromosomes.
• Polyploid cells have multiple copies of chromosomes and haploid cells have
single copies.
• The study of Karyotypes is important for cell biology and genetics, and the
results may be used in evolutionary biology (karyosystematics)[5] and
medicine.
• Karyotypes can be used for many purposes; such as to study chromosomal
aberrations, cellular function, taxonomic relationships, and to gather
information about past evolutionary events

34. 1.Sample Collection
 The first step in performing a karyotype is collecting the
“sample.”
 In newborns, a blood sample which contains red bloods cells,
white blood cells, serum and other fluids is collected.
 A karyotype will be done on the white blood cells which are
actively dividing (a state known as mitosis).
 During pregnancy, the sample can be amniotic fluid .The
amniotic fluid contains fetal skin cells which are used to generate
a karyotype.

35. 2.Transport to the Laboratory:
 A karyotype is a specialized test that is done in a specific
laboratory called a cytogenetics lab.
 Not all hospitals have cytogenetics labs.
 If your hospital or medical facility doesn’t have it’s own
cytogenetics laboratory (most don’t), the test sample will
be sent to a lab that specializes in karyotype analysis.
 The test sample is analyzed by specially trained cytogenetic
technologists, Ph.D cytogeneticists, or medical geneticists.
 ‘Cytogenetics' is a word for the study of chromosomes.

36. 3.Separating the Cells
 In order to analyze chromosomes, the sample must contain cells that are
actively dividing (or in mitosis).
 In blood, the white blood cells are actively dividing cells. Most fetal cells
are actively dividing.
 Once the sample reaches the cytogenetics lab, the non-divided cells are
separated from the dividing cells using special chemicals.
4.Growing Cells
 In order to have enough cells to analyze, the dividing cells are grown in
special media or a cell culture.
 This media contains chemicals and hormones that enable the cells to
divide and multiply.
 This process of “culturing” the cells can take 3 to 4 days for blood cells,
and up to a week for fetal cells.

37. 5.Synchronizing Cells
 Chromosome are long string of human DNA.
 In order to see chromosomes under a microscope, chromosomes have to be in their most
compact form.
 This compact form occurs at a specific stage of mitosis called metaphase.
 In order to get all the cells to this specific stage of cell division, the cells are treated with a
chemical which stops cell division at the point where the chromosomes are the most compact.
6.Releasing the Chromosomes from their Cells
 In order to see these compact chromosomes under a microscope, the chromosomes have to be
out of the white blood cells.
 This is done by treating the white blood cells with a special solution that causes them to
burst.
 This is done while the cells are on a microscopic slide.
 The leftover debris from the white blood cells is washed away, and the chromosomes are now
fixed (or stuck) to the slide.

38. 7.Staining the Chromosomes
 Chromosomes are naturallycolorless.
 In order to be able to tell one chromosome fromanother, a special dye called Giemsadye is
appliedto the chromosomes on theslide.
 Giemsa dye stains regions of chromosomesthat are richin the bases adenine(A) and thymine
(T). Whenstained, the chromosomes looklike strings withlight and dark bands.
 Eachchromosomehas a specific pattern of light and dark bands whichenables cytogeneticists
to tell one chromosome fromanother.
 Eachdark or light bandactuallyencompasses hundreds of different genes.
8.Analysis
 Once chromosomesare stained, the slide is put under the microscope and the analysis of the
chromosomesbegins.
 A picture is taken of the chromosomes and at the endof the analysis, the total number of
chromosomeswill be known and there will be a picture of the chromosomesarranged by size.

39. 9.Counting Chromosomes:
 The first step of the analysis is counting the chromosomes
 . Most humans have 46 chromosomes.
 People with Down syndrome have 47 chromosomes.
 It is also possiblefor people to havemissing chromosomes or more than
one extra chromosome.
 By looking at just the number of chromosomes, it is possible to diagnose
different conditions including Down syndrome.

40. 10. Sorting Chromosomes:
 After determining the number of chromosomes present, the
cytogeneticists will start sorting the chromosomes.
 To sort the chromosomes, the cytogeneticists will compare
chromosome length, the placement of centromeres (the areas where
the two chromatids are joined), and the location and sizes of G-bands.
 The chromosomes pairs are numbered from largest (number 1) to
smallest (number 22).
 There are 22 pairs of chromosomes, called autosomes, which match up
exactly.
 There are also the sex chromosomes, two X‘s is a female and an X and
a Y is a male.

41. 11. Looking at the Structure:
 In addition to looking at the total number of chromosomes and the sex
chromosomes, the cytogeneticists will also look at the structure of the specific
chromosomes to make sure that there is no missing or additional material, no
structural abnormalities like translocations and a variety of other possible
chromosome abnormalities.
12. The Final Result:
 In the end, the final karyotype test shows the total number of chromosomes,
the sex of the person being studied, and if there are any structural
abnormalities with any of the individual chromosomes. A digital picture of the
chromosomes is generated with all of the chromosomes arranged by number.
 When diagnosing Down syndrome, the focus tends to be on the total number
of chromosomes, but in reality, a karyotype gives you information on the
number, the structure and many other facets of an individual’s chromosomes.

42. THANK YOU